Posted: March 5th, 2022

Module 4.1 States of Consciousness

Module 4.1 States of Consciousness

Module 4.2 Sleeping and Dreaming

Module 4.3 Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis

Module 4.4 Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

Consciousness deals with our awareness of ourselves and the world around us.

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Module 4.1

States of Consciousness

William James: Described consciousness as a stream of thoughts

Today’s view: Consciousness is a state of awareness of ourselves and of our world.

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Focused awareness

Drifting consciousness (e.g., daydreaming)

Divided consciousness

Altered states of consciousness

States of unconsciousness during sleep
and dreaming

States or levels of consciousness vary through the course of day from brief states of full absorption, called focused awareness, to states of distracted consciousness, divided consciousness, altered states of consciousness associated with practice of meditation and hypnosis and use of psychoactive drugs, and states of unconsciousness during sleep and dreaming.

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Source: Adapted from 2003 Nerves of Steel survey, commissioned by the Steel Alliance and the Canada Safety Council, retrieved from
www.safety-council.org/info/traffic/distract.html

© mtsyri/Shutterstock.com

© Galina Barskaya/Shutterstock.com

Behaviors Yourself (%) Another Driver (%)
Drinking beverages (e.g., coffee, soft drinks) 65 74
Eating 53 66
Using a cell phone 35 79
Arguing with passengers 27 41
Disciplining children 18 33
Reading 8 26
Putting on makeup, shaving, or combing hair 8 43
Using PDAs, laptops, or other high-tech devices 5 21
Risks of divided consciousness, especially distracted driving.

Driving while on the phone is about as dangerous as driving with a blood alcohol concentration at the legal limit.

Here we see some of the other foolish things that people do when they are driving, all of which reduce their focus on driving in a safe manner.

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Module 4.2

Sleeping and Dreaming

Why do we sleep?

Several functions of sleep have been proposed:

Protective function

Energy conservation

Restore bodily processes

Consolidate newly learned information into lasting memories

May bolster immune system

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© Cengage Learning

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Humans and other animals operate on a 24-hour biological cycle, called a circadian rhythm. These daily cycles are particularly important in the regulation of sleep.

Many bodily processes fluctuate in a daily pattern. Sleep-wake cycle is close to 24 hours in length. Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus Jet lag is associated with a disruption of the sleep-wake cycle.

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Exposure to light apparently affects the activity of a small structure in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which sends signals to the nearby pineal gland, whose secretion of the hormone melatonin plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks.

This video shows a few possible treatments that can be used for jet lag, with varying efficacy.

How does jet lag affect you?

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Visiting Team
Flies East
Wins 37% of Games

Visiting Team
Flies West
Wins 44% of Games

Getting out of sync with your circadian rhythms causes a reduction in the quality of sleep, as well as jet lag.

The speed of readjustment to the biological block depends on the direction traveled – traveling westward is generally easier than traveling eastward.

Jet lag has a significant enough impact that it affects the performance of sports teams, as you can see here.

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Amplitude

Frequency

Measuring variations of consciousness has historically relied on the electroencephalograph, or EEG.

The EEG records activity in the cortex with a series of brain-wave tracings that vary in amplitude and frequency.

Different EEG patterns are associated with different states of consciousness.

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Stage 1 Sleep
Small, irregular brain waves

Stage 2 Sleep

Sleep Spindles and Mixed EEG Activity

Slow-wave Sleep (Stage 3 and Stage 4 Sleep)

Progressively More Delta Waves (Stage 4 Shown)

Small, irregular brain waves

Sleep Spindle

Stage 1 is a brief stage of light sleep characterized by small, irregular brain waves.

[Click to continue]

During stage 2, brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called sleep spindles, appear against a background of mixed EEG activity.

[Click to continue]

Gradually, your brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in frequency. As you move into stages 3 and 4, which are called slow-wave sleep, delta waves become prominent

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© Cengage Learning

Beta waves are correlated with alertness and problem solving. Alpha waves are associated with resting and relaxation. Delta waves, which are slow rhythmic brain wave patterns, are associated with deep sleep.

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1

2

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4

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3

2

4

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Waking

REM sleep

Hours of sleep

Sleep stages

After about a half-hour in these deep stages of sleep, the cycle reverses itself, and you gradually move upward through lighter stages of sleep.

When you reach what should be stage 1 once again, you usually go into the fifth stage of sleep, which is called REM sleep.

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Awake
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves

REM Sleep
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves

1 Second

50 µv

EEG activity during REM sleep is dominated by high-frequency beta waves that resemble those observed when people are awake and alert.

REM sleep is the stage of sleep during which most dreaming occurs.

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Wakefulness

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

REM

REM

During the course of a night, people usually repeat the sleep cycle about four times.

As the night wears on, the cycle gradually changes. The first REM period is relatively short. Subsequent REM periods are longer, peaking at around 40 to 60 minutes. Additionally, non-REM intervals tend to get shorter, and descents into non-REM stages usually become shallower.

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Time

Wakefulness

Stage1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

REM

Dreams

Dreams typically occur during REM sleep and often have vivid imagery, a story-like quality, and are sometimes bizarre, but seem real to the dreamer.

People may also dream in non-REM sleep, although the dreams tend to be briefer, less frequent, less story-like and lacking in vivid imagery.

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© Cengage Learning

According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, the cerebral cortex tries to make sense of random electrical discharges from the brainstem during sleep, piecing together story-like dreams based on memories and emotional associations.

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© Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, SuperStock 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAC, Paris

The question of what dreams mean continues to be debated. Research shows that the content of dreams is usually familiar. Common themes in dreams include things like falling, being pursued, trying repeatedly to do something, school, sex, being late, eating, being frightened, etc.

Freud believed that dreams represent the deepest wishes, urges, and desires of our unconscious. He believed that wish fulfillment was the major impetus behind the dreams that we have.

Manifest content – The events that actually occur in your dream.

Latent content – The true, underlying meaning of a dream, disguised by symbols.

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Have you ever been aware that you were dreaming?

Do you ever have the ability to control the content and direction of your dreams?

Lucid dreams involve being aware that one is in a dream state and, less frequently, being able to control the dream that is occurring.

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How Long We Sleep

When Americans

Go to Bed

Source: CDC, National Health Interview Survey, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers

Source: Adapted from “Sleepless in America,” a survey conducted by the ACNielsen Company, April 2005

Research suggests that the effects of sleep deprivation are impaired attention, reaction time, cognitive speed and accuracy, motor coordination, and decision making.

Drowsiness factors into about 20% of all traffic incidents, as well as contributing to accidents in the workplace.

Sleep deprivation is also linked to health problems, including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and coronary disease.

Both total amount and type of sleep affects functioning

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This news clip shows examines research linking lack of sleep and childhood obesity.

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Sleep disorders are quite varied. The most common, however, is insomnia.

Insomnia occurs in 3 different patterns…trouble falling asleep, trouble remaining asleep, and persistent early morning awakening.

Other sleep disorders include narcolepsy, a disorder involving the sudden and irresistible onset of sleep, and sleep apnea, a frequent, reflexive gasping for air that disrupts sleep.

Nightmare disorder involves frequent, disturbing nightmares that interfere markedly with normal sleep, and sleep-terror disorder involves panic-laden “night terrors” that seem to be unrelated to dream content.

Sleepwalking, when persistent and chronic, may be more than a passing phase and may indicate a sleep-wake disorder.

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Module 4.3

Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis

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Transcendental Meditation

Mindfulness Meditation

Kim Eriksen/Flirt/Corbis

Meditation is an ancient discipline which has recently become an area of growing interest.

Involves the focusing on attention and inducing a relaxed, contemplative state.

Transcendental meditation – focusing attention by the repetition of a mantra

Mindfulness meditation – focus on unfolding experiences on a moment-to-moment basis without judgment (e.g, “Am I doing this right?”) bearing on their experiences

Health benefits of meditation include: combating the effects of stress, lowering blood pressure, and relieving chronic pain, insomnia, anxiety, and depression.

Cognitive benefits include improved memory and emotional processing.

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B. BOISSONNET/BSIP/Alamy

Hypnosis involves a systematic procedure involving a narrowing or focusing of attention that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility and states of deep relaxation.

There are varied techniques for inducing hypnosis.

Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair)

Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)

Hypnotic phenomena include:

Hypnotic age regression

Hypnotic analgesia (anesthesia, as used during dental or medical procedures)

Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair) Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)

Posthypnotic suggestion (“After you awake, you will feel itchy all over when you hear the word watermelon.”).

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Role-playing model

Trance state

Hilgard’s neodissociation theory

Dissociated consciousness

The Hidden Observer

There is no consensual agreement about what hypnosis “is” or even how to define it. The most prominent theories of hypnosis include the belief that it involves a trance-like state of consciousness, role-playing theory which focuses on the social interaction between the hypnotist and the subject, and Hilgard’s neodissociation theory or splitting of consciousness.

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Well-developed fantasy life

Vivid sense of imagination

Tendency to be forgetful

Positive attitude toward hypnosis

People vary in their hypnotizablity.

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Module 4.4

Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

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Chemical substances that act on the brain to affect emotional or mental states

Used for a variety of reasons:

Change level of alertness

Alter one’s mental state

Blunt awareness of the stresses
and strains of daily life

Seek inner truths

Psychoactive drugs modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning. They are divided into three general classes: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens.

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When does drug use cross the line to drug abuse?

What is drug dependence?

What is psychological dependence?

Drug Abuse and Dependence

Substance abuse involves maladaptive use of a drug associated with harmful consequences

Drug dependence involves impaired control over the use of the drug, typically associated with physiological or chemical dependences, as marked by a withdrawal syndrome and/or tolerance.

Psychological dependence is characterized by compulsive use of a substance to meet a psychological need (cope with stress, treat anxiety or depression).

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Depressants – drugs that reduce central nervous system activity. Get custom essay samples and course-specific study resources via course hero homework for you service – Include alcohol, barbiturates and tranquilizers, and opioids.

Alcohol is the most widely used psychoactive drug.

Alcohol is classified as a depressant drug, although may incorrectly believe it to be a stimulant. When people drink heavily, the effect is a relaxed euphoria that temporarily boosts self-esteem and decreases inhibitions.

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Progressive Effects of Blood Alcohol Levels

Source: Adapted from Teacher’s Guide: Information about Alcohol, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol

Abuse and Alcoholism, 2003. Retrieved from http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih3/alcohol/guide/info-alcohol.htm

Physical and Psychological Effects of Alcohol

Blood Alcohol Concentration (%) Effects/Risks
0.01–0.05 Relaxation, sense of well-being, loss of inhibition, impaired alertness and judgment
0.06–0.10 Pleasure, numbness of feelings, nausea, sleepiness, emotional arousal, and impaired coordination (especially for fine motor skills)
0.11–0.20 Mood swings, anger, sadness, mania, impaired reasoning and depth perception, and inappropriate social behavior (obnoxiousness)
0.21–0.30 Aggression, reduced sensations, depression, stupor, slurred speech, lack of balance, and loss of temperature regulation
0.031–0.40 Unconsciousness, coma, possible death, loss of bladder control, and difficulty breathing
0.41 and greater Slowed heart rate, death
Alcohol overdose can have fatal consequences. Here we see the general effects of different concentrations of alcohol in the blood.

Dependence on alcohol, both physically and psychologically, affects millions of Americans. Alcohol dependence is commonly called alcoholism.

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Brain Wernicke’s syndrome,
an acute condition characterized
by mental confusion and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration
of the white brain matter

Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia,
a reversible paralysis of the muscles of the eye

Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx

Esophagus Esophageal varices,
an irreversible condition in which
the person can die by drowning in his own blood when the varices open

Lungs Lowered resistance
thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia,
and emphysema

Spleen Hypersplenism

Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy,
a heart condition

Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)

Stomach Gastritis and ulcers

Pancreas Acute and
chronic pancreatitis

Rectum Hemorrhoids

Testes Atrophy of the testes

Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation

Muscles Alcoholic myopathy,
a condition resulting in painful
muscle contractions

Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia

Brain Wernicke’s syndrome, an acute condition characterized by mental confusion
and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration of the white brain matter

Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia, a reversible paralysis
of the muscles of the eye

Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx

Esophagus Esophageal varices, an irreversible condition in which the person can die
by drowning in his own blood when the varices open

Lungs Lowered resistance thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia, and emphysema

Spleen Hypersplenism

Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy, a heart condition

Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)

Stomach Gastritis and ulcers

Pancreas Acute and chronic pancreatitis

Rectum Hemorrhoids

Testes Atrophy of the testes

Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation

Muscles Alcoholic myopathy, a condition resulting in painful muscle contractions

Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia

© Cengage Learning

Alcoholism is associated with a diverse array of physiological maladies, such as liver disease, malnutrition, brain damage, neurological disorders, heart disease, stroke, hypertension, ulcers, cancer, and birth defects.

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This clip involves a person discussing his experience of suffering from alcoholism.

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Alcohol Use Among
College Students

Alcohol on Campus:
The Annual Toll

Source: Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, 2001

Source: Hingson et al., 2002; Sink, 2004; Yaccino, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap. Note: These figures represent the estimated annual numbers of alcohol-related physical assaults, injuries, sexual assaults, and deaths among U.S. college students ages 18 to 24

86.6 Percentage who have used alcohol in their lifetime
83.2 Percentage who have used alcohol within the past year
67.4 Percentage who have used alcohol within the past 30 days
3.6 Percentage who have used alcohol daily within the past 30 days
39.3 Percentage who have had five or more drinks in a row during the last 2 weeks
600,000 physical assaults
500,000 injuries
70,000 sexual assaults
1,800 deaths due to overdose and accidents
College campuses are often described as “alcohol-soaked,” and while that may be a slight overstatement the fact remains that drinking is a major problem at colleges.

Binge drinking and drinking games pose significant health risks, particularly to those who are not accustomed to such alcohol consumption.

It is important not only to monitor your own behaviors and protect yourself, but to also know the signs of dangerous alcohol overdoes and how to respond appropriately if someone has drunk excessively.

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Barbiturates are calming or sedating drugs that have legitimate medicinal use, but can be abused ot lead to dependence. Some examples include amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, and secobarbital.

Tranquilizers are most commonly prescribed to treat anxiety and insomnia. They can be very dangerous in high doses, and should never be combined with alcohol. One category of tranquilizers, benzodiazepines, includes Valium, Xanax, and Halcion.

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Barbiturates and

Tranquilizers

Yes

Risk of physiological
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

High

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Sedatives also have high rates of dependence and fatal overdose potential. They also increase the risk of accidental injuries because they severely impair motor coordination and are especially dangerous when mixed with other drugs, such as alcohol.

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Opioids

Opioids are narcotics, including heroin, morphine, codeine, and Demerol, are addictive drugs that have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties. They also produce an overwhelming sense of euphoria – a “who cares” quality. Heroin, morphine, opium, and codeine are derived from the poppy plants. Synthetic opiates, such as OxyContin and Vicodin, are synthesized in the laboratory to have opiate-like effects.

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Opioids
(Narcotics)

Yes

Risk of Physiological
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

Yes

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Narcotics have high rates of physical and psychological dependence, as well as a high risk for fatal overdose.

Other risks include infectious diseases (through sharing of needles), accidents, and immune suppression.

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Caffeine

Nicotine

Amphetamines

Cocaine

MDMA (“Ecstasy”)

Examples of Stimulants

Stimulants include mild drugs such as caffeine and nicotine, as well as much stronger drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines. Cocaine and amphetamines have similar effects, except the effects of amphetamines last longer. The euphoria created by these drugs is very different from the “who cares,” very relaxed state of narcotics. It is more like an “I can conquer the world,” or very alert state of being.

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Amphetamines are synthetic stimulants that are synthesized in a laboratory.

They boost neurotransmitters in the brain, especially dopamine, to achieve their effects.

Health risks of the abuse of amphetamines include restlessness, loss of appetite, tremors, and heart irregularities that can lead to a coma or death.

Amphetamine psychosis is marked by delusions and hallucinations and can resemble an episode of schizophrenia.

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1. Neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are stored
in synaptic vesicles in the sending neuron and released into the synaptic gap. Normally, excess molecules of neurotransmitters not taken up by receptor sites are absorbed by the sending neuron in a recycling process called reuptake.

2. Cocaine (orange circles in diagram) blocks the reuptake of dopamine by the sending neuron.

3. The accumulation of dopamine in the synapse overstimulates neurons in key reward pathways
in the brain, producing a pleasurable “high.”
Over time, the brain becomes less capable of producing feelings of pleasure on its own, leading users to “crash” if they stop using the drug.

Sending neuron

Synaptic vesicle

Neurotransmitters

Synaptic gap

Receptor site

Receiving neuron

Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
National Institutes of Health, 2004

Cocaine interferes with the reuptake of dopamine by the transmitting neuron. As a result, more dopamine remains available to bind at receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons, causing greater levels of excitation and stimulation of reward pathways in the brain, producing states of pleasure or euphoria.

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The major preventable cause of death

450,000 deaths annually in the U.S.

Accounts for one in five deaths in the U.S.

Decreases average lifespan by 10 years

Responsible for nearly 1 of 3 cancer deaths in the U.S.

Major contributor to serious health problems

Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the U.S. and worldwide.

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Stimulants

Yes

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

High for
amphetamine and
cocaine overdose

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Risk of Physiological
Dependence

Stimulants have moderate to high levels of physical and psychological dependence, as well as risk of fatal overdose.

Other risks include sleep problems, malnutrition, nasal damage (from snorting), hypertension, and respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease and other diseases (from smoking).

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LSD

Mescaline, Psilocybin, and PCP

Marijuana

© Ann Marie Rousseau/The Image Works

Hallucinogens induce sensory distortions and hallucinations that vary in intensity from relatively mild (marijuana) to extreme (LSD).

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Cannabis is the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) are derived. THC, the active chemical ingredient, causes a mild, relaxed euphoria and enhanced sensory awareness. The most potent form is hashish (“hash”) which is derived from the resin of the plant.

More than 40% of American report having used it at least once, with 10% being active current users.

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Marijuana

Unclear

Risk of Physical
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

Low

Fatal Overdose
potential

Drugs

It is unclear what the risk is of physiological dependence on marijuana, however there is potential of psychological dependence.

Other risks associated with marijuana use include accidents, lung cancer, respiratory disease, pulmonary disease, and paranoia.

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Sociocultural influences

Cultural norms, role of unemployment
and alienation from mainstream culture

Biological influences

Genetic factors

Role of neurotransmitters

Psychological influences

Role of attitudes toward drugs, use of drugs
as forms of self-medication, pleasurable
effects as strong positive reinforcers

Many factors are involved in problems of drug abuse and dependence.

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Detoxification

Drug counseling

Therapeutic drugs

Self-help programs

Treatment focuses on clearing drugs from the body (detox) and use of treatment services, such as drug counseling, therapeutic drugs (e.g., methadone), and self-help programs to help recovering drug abusers get their lives back on track.

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Applying Psychology

in Daily Life

Getting Your Z’s

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Adopt a regular sleep schedule

Don’t try to force sleep

Establish a regular bedtime routine

Establish proper cues for sleeping

Avoid tossing and turning

Avoid daytime naps if miss sleep

Don’t take problems to bed

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Module 4.1 States of Consciousness

Module 4.2 Sleeping and Dreaming

Module 4.3 Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis

Module 4.4 Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

Consciousness deals with our awareness of ourselves and the world around us.

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Module 4.1

States of Consciousness

William James: Described consciousness as a stream of thoughts

Today’s view: Consciousness is a state of awareness of ourselves and of our world.

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4.3

Focused awareness

Drifting consciousness (e.g., daydreaming)

Divided consciousness

Altered states of consciousness

States of unconsciousness during sleep
and dreaming

States or levels of consciousness vary through the course of day from brief states of full absorption, called focused awareness, to states of distracted consciousness, divided consciousness, altered states of consciousness associated with practice of meditation and hypnosis and use of psychoactive drugs, and states of unconsciousness during sleep and dreaming.

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Source: Adapted from 2003 Nerves of Steel survey, commissioned by the Steel Alliance and the Canada Safety Council, retrieved from
www.safety-council.org/info/traffic/distract.html

© mtsyri/Shutterstock.com

© Galina Barskaya/Shutterstock.com

Behaviors Yourself (%) Another Driver (%)
Drinking beverages (e.g., coffee, soft drinks) 65 74
Eating 53 66
Using a cell phone 35 79
Arguing with passengers 27 41
Disciplining children 18 33
Reading 8 26
Putting on makeup, shaving, or combing hair 8 43
Using PDAs, laptops, or other high-tech devices 5 21
Risks of divided consciousness, especially distracted driving.

Driving while on the phone is about as dangerous as driving with a blood alcohol concentration at the legal limit.

Here we see some of the other foolish things that people do when they are driving, all of which reduce their focus on driving in a safe manner.

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Module 4.2

Sleeping and Dreaming

Why do we sleep?

Several functions of sleep have been proposed:

Protective function

Energy conservation

Restore bodily processes

Consolidate newly learned information into lasting memories

May bolster immune system

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© Cengage Learning

12

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9

6

Humans and other animals operate on a 24-hour biological cycle, called a circadian rhythm. These daily cycles are particularly important in the regulation of sleep.

Many bodily processes fluctuate in a daily pattern. Sleep-wake cycle is close to 24 hours in length. Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus Jet lag is associated with a disruption of the sleep-wake cycle.

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4.3

Exposure to light apparently affects the activity of a small structure in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which sends signals to the nearby pineal gland, whose secretion of the hormone melatonin plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks.

This video shows a few possible treatments that can be used for jet lag, with varying efficacy.

How does jet lag affect you?

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4.3

Visiting Team
Flies East
Wins 37% of Games

Visiting Team
Flies West
Wins 44% of Games

Getting out of sync with your circadian rhythms causes a reduction in the quality of sleep, as well as jet lag.

The speed of readjustment to the biological block depends on the direction traveled – traveling westward is generally easier than traveling eastward.

Jet lag has a significant enough impact that it affects the performance of sports teams, as you can see here.

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4.3

Amplitude

Frequency

Measuring variations of consciousness has historically relied on the electroencephalograph, or EEG.

The EEG records activity in the cortex with a series of brain-wave tracings that vary in amplitude and frequency.

Different EEG patterns are associated with different states of consciousness.

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4.3

Stage 1 Sleep
Small, irregular brain waves

Stage 2 Sleep

Sleep Spindles and Mixed EEG Activity

Slow-wave Sleep (Stage 3 and Stage 4 Sleep)

Progressively More Delta Waves (Stage 4 Shown)

Small, irregular brain waves

Sleep Spindle

Stage 1 is a brief stage of light sleep characterized by small, irregular brain waves.

[Click to continue]

During stage 2, brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called sleep spindles, appear against a background of mixed EEG activity.

[Click to continue]

Gradually, your brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in frequency. As you move into stages 3 and 4, which are called slow-wave sleep, delta waves become prominent

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© Cengage Learning

Beta waves are correlated with alertness and problem solving. Alpha waves are associated with resting and relaxation. Delta waves, which are slow rhythmic brain wave patterns, are associated with deep sleep.

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1

2

3

4

1

3

2

4

5

6

7

Waking

REM sleep

Hours of sleep

Sleep stages

After about a half-hour in these deep stages of sleep, the cycle reverses itself, and you gradually move upward through lighter stages of sleep.

When you reach what should be stage 1 once again, you usually go into the fifth stage of sleep, which is called REM sleep.

.

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Awake
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves

REM Sleep
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves

1 Second

50 µv

EEG activity during REM sleep is dominated by high-frequency beta waves that resemble those observed when people are awake and alert.

REM sleep is the stage of sleep during which most dreaming occurs.

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Wakefulness

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

REM

REM

During the course of a night, people usually repeat the sleep cycle about four times.

As the night wears on, the cycle gradually changes. The first REM period is relatively short. Subsequent REM periods are longer, peaking at around 40 to 60 minutes. Additionally, non-REM intervals tend to get shorter, and descents into non-REM stages usually become shallower.

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Time

Wakefulness

Stage1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

REM

Dreams

Dreams typically occur during REM sleep and often have vivid imagery, a story-like quality, and are sometimes bizarre, but seem real to the dreamer.

People may also dream in non-REM sleep, although the dreams tend to be briefer, less frequent, less story-like and lacking in vivid imagery.

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© Cengage Learning

According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, the cerebral cortex tries to make sense of random electrical discharges from the brainstem during sleep, piecing together story-like dreams based on memories and emotional associations.

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© Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, SuperStock 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAC, Paris

The question of what dreams mean continues to be debated. Research shows that the content of dreams is usually familiar. Common themes in dreams include things like falling, being pursued, trying repeatedly to do something, school, sex, being late, eating, being frightened, etc.

Freud believed that dreams represent the deepest wishes, urges, and desires of our unconscious. He believed that wish fulfillment was the major impetus behind the dreams that we have.

Manifest content – The events that actually occur in your dream.

Latent content – The true, underlying meaning of a dream, disguised by symbols.

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Have you ever been aware that you were dreaming?

Do you ever have the ability to control the content and direction of your dreams?

Lucid dreams involve being aware that one is in a dream state and, less frequently, being able to control the dream that is occurring.

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How Long We Sleep

When Americans

Go to Bed

Source: CDC, National Health Interview Survey, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers

Source: Adapted from “Sleepless in America,” a survey conducted by the ACNielsen Company, April 2005

Research suggests that the effects of sleep deprivation are impaired attention, reaction time, cognitive speed and accuracy, motor coordination, and decision making.

Drowsiness factors into about 20% of all traffic incidents, as well as contributing to accidents in the workplace.

Sleep deprivation is also linked to health problems, including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and coronary disease.

Both total amount and type of sleep affects functioning

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This news clip shows examines research linking lack of sleep and childhood obesity.

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4.3

Sleep disorders are quite varied. The most common, however, is insomnia.

Insomnia occurs in 3 different patterns…trouble falling asleep, trouble remaining asleep, and persistent early morning awakening.

Other sleep disorders include narcolepsy, a disorder involving the sudden and irresistible onset of sleep, and sleep apnea, a frequent, reflexive gasping for air that disrupts sleep.

Nightmare disorder involves frequent, disturbing nightmares that interfere markedly with normal sleep, and sleep-terror disorder involves panic-laden “night terrors” that seem to be unrelated to dream content.

Sleepwalking, when persistent and chronic, may be more than a passing phase and may indicate a sleep-wake disorder.

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Module 4.3

Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis

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4.3

Transcendental Meditation

Mindfulness Meditation

Kim Eriksen/Flirt/Corbis

Meditation is an ancient discipline which has recently become an area of growing interest.

Involves the focusing on attention and inducing a relaxed, contemplative state.

Transcendental meditation – focusing attention by the repetition of a mantra

Mindfulness meditation – focus on unfolding experiences on a moment-to-moment basis without judgment (e.g, “Am I doing this right?”) bearing on their experiences

Health benefits of meditation include: combating the effects of stress, lowering blood pressure, and relieving chronic pain, insomnia, anxiety, and depression.

Cognitive benefits include improved memory and emotional processing.

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B. BOISSONNET/BSIP/Alamy

Hypnosis involves a systematic procedure involving a narrowing or focusing of attention that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility and states of deep relaxation.

There are varied techniques for inducing hypnosis.

Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair)

Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)

Hypnotic phenomena include:

Hypnotic age regression

Hypnotic analgesia (anesthesia, as used during dental or medical procedures)

Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair) Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)

Posthypnotic suggestion (“After you awake, you will feel itchy all over when you hear the word watermelon.”).

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Role-playing model

Trance state

Hilgard’s neodissociation theory

Dissociated consciousness

The Hidden Observer

There is no consensual agreement about what hypnosis “is” or even how to define it. The most prominent theories of hypnosis include the belief that it involves a trance-like state of consciousness, role-playing theory which focuses on the social interaction between the hypnotist and the subject, and Hilgard’s neodissociation theory or splitting of consciousness.

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Well-developed fantasy life

Vivid sense of imagination

Tendency to be forgetful

Positive attitude toward hypnosis

People vary in their hypnotizablity.

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Module 4.4

Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

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Chemical substances that act on the brain to affect emotional or mental states

Used for a variety of reasons:

Change level of alertness

Alter one’s mental state

Blunt awareness of the stresses
and strains of daily life

Seek inner truths

Psychoactive drugs modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning. They are divided into three general classes: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens.

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When does drug use cross the line to drug abuse?

What is drug dependence?

What is psychological dependence?

Drug Abuse and Dependence

Substance abuse involves maladaptive use of a drug associated with harmful consequences

Drug dependence involves impaired control over the use of the drug, typically associated with physiological or chemical dependences, as marked by a withdrawal syndrome and/or tolerance.

Psychological dependence is characterized by compulsive use of a substance to meet a psychological need (cope with stress, treat anxiety or depression).

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Depressants – drugs that reduce central nervous system activity. Get custom essay samples and course-specific study resources via course hero homework for you service – Include alcohol, barbiturates and tranquilizers, and opioids.

Alcohol is the most widely used psychoactive drug.

Alcohol is classified as a depressant drug, although may incorrectly believe it to be a stimulant. When people drink heavily, the effect is a relaxed euphoria that temporarily boosts self-esteem and decreases inhibitions.

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Progressive Effects of Blood Alcohol Levels

Source: Adapted from Teacher’s Guide: Information about Alcohol, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol

Abuse and Alcoholism, 2003. Retrieved from http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih3/alcohol/guide/info-alcohol.htm

Physical and Psychological Effects of Alcohol

Blood Alcohol Concentration (%) Effects/Risks
0.01–0.05 Relaxation, sense of well-being, loss of inhibition, impaired alertness and judgment
0.06–0.10 Pleasure, numbness of feelings, nausea, sleepiness, emotional arousal, and impaired coordination (especially for fine motor skills)
0.11–0.20 Mood swings, anger, sadness, mania, impaired reasoning and depth perception, and inappropriate social behavior (obnoxiousness)
0.21–0.30 Aggression, reduced sensations, depression, stupor, slurred speech, lack of balance, and loss of temperature regulation
0.031–0.40 Unconsciousness, coma, possible death, loss of bladder control, and difficulty breathing
0.41 and greater Slowed heart rate, death
Alcohol overdose can have fatal consequences. Here we see the general effects of different concentrations of alcohol in the blood.

Dependence on alcohol, both physically and psychologically, affects millions of Americans. Alcohol dependence is commonly called alcoholism.

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Brain Wernicke’s syndrome,
an acute condition characterized
by mental confusion and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration
of the white brain matter

Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia,
a reversible paralysis of the muscles of the eye

Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx

Esophagus Esophageal varices,
an irreversible condition in which
the person can die by drowning in his own blood when the varices open

Lungs Lowered resistance
thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia,
and emphysema

Spleen Hypersplenism

Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy,
a heart condition

Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)

Stomach Gastritis and ulcers

Pancreas Acute and
chronic pancreatitis

Rectum Hemorrhoids

Testes Atrophy of the testes

Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation

Muscles Alcoholic myopathy,
a condition resulting in painful
muscle contractions

Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia

Brain Wernicke’s syndrome, an acute condition characterized by mental confusion
and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration of the white brain matter

Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia, a reversible paralysis
of the muscles of the eye

Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx

Esophagus Esophageal varices, an irreversible condition in which the person can die
by drowning in his own blood when the varices open

Lungs Lowered resistance thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia, and emphysema

Spleen Hypersplenism

Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy, a heart condition

Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)

Stomach Gastritis and ulcers

Pancreas Acute and chronic pancreatitis

Rectum Hemorrhoids

Testes Atrophy of the testes

Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation

Muscles Alcoholic myopathy, a condition resulting in painful muscle contractions

Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia

© Cengage Learning

Alcoholism is associated with a diverse array of physiological maladies, such as liver disease, malnutrition, brain damage, neurological disorders, heart disease, stroke, hypertension, ulcers, cancer, and birth defects.

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This clip involves a person discussing his experience of suffering from alcoholism.

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Alcohol Use Among
College Students

Alcohol on Campus:
The Annual Toll

Source: Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, 2001

Source: Hingson et al., 2002; Sink, 2004; Yaccino, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap. Note: These figures represent the estimated annual numbers of alcohol-related physical assaults, injuries, sexual assaults, and deaths among U.S. college students ages 18 to 24

86.6 Percentage who have used alcohol in their lifetime
83.2 Percentage who have used alcohol within the past year
67.4 Percentage who have used alcohol within the past 30 days
3.6 Percentage who have used alcohol daily within the past 30 days
39.3 Percentage who have had five or more drinks in a row during the last 2 weeks
600,000 physical assaults
500,000 injuries
70,000 sexual assaults
1,800 deaths due to overdose and accidents
College campuses are often described as “alcohol-soaked,” and while that may be a slight overstatement the fact remains that drinking is a major problem at colleges.

Binge drinking and drinking games pose significant health risks, particularly to those who are not accustomed to such alcohol consumption.

It is important not only to monitor your own behaviors and protect yourself, but to also know the signs of dangerous alcohol overdoes and how to respond appropriately if someone has drunk excessively.

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Barbiturates are calming or sedating drugs that have legitimate medicinal use, but can be abused ot lead to dependence. Some examples include amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, and secobarbital.

Tranquilizers are most commonly prescribed to treat anxiety and insomnia. They can be very dangerous in high doses, and should never be combined with alcohol. One category of tranquilizers, benzodiazepines, includes Valium, Xanax, and Halcion.

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Barbiturates and

Tranquilizers

Yes

Risk of physiological
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

High

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Sedatives also have high rates of dependence and fatal overdose potential. They also increase the risk of accidental injuries because they severely impair motor coordination and are especially dangerous when mixed with other drugs, such as alcohol.

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Opioids

Opioids are narcotics, including heroin, morphine, codeine, and Demerol, are addictive drugs that have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties. They also produce an overwhelming sense of euphoria – a “who cares” quality. Heroin, morphine, opium, and codeine are derived from the poppy plants. Synthetic opiates, such as OxyContin and Vicodin, are synthesized in the laboratory to have opiate-like effects.

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Opioids
(Narcotics)

Yes

Risk of Physiological
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

Yes

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Narcotics have high rates of physical and psychological dependence, as well as a high risk for fatal overdose.

Other risks include infectious diseases (through sharing of needles), accidents, and immune suppression.

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Caffeine

Nicotine

Amphetamines

Cocaine

MDMA (“Ecstasy”)

Examples of Stimulants

Stimulants include mild drugs such as caffeine and nicotine, as well as much stronger drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines. Cocaine and amphetamines have similar effects, except the effects of amphetamines last longer. The euphoria created by these drugs is very different from the “who cares,” very relaxed state of narcotics. It is more like an “I can conquer the world,” or very alert state of being.

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Amphetamines are synthetic stimulants that are synthesized in a laboratory.

They boost neurotransmitters in the brain, especially dopamine, to achieve their effects.

Health risks of the abuse of amphetamines include restlessness, loss of appetite, tremors, and heart irregularities that can lead to a coma or death.

Amphetamine psychosis is marked by delusions and hallucinations and can resemble an episode of schizophrenia.

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1. Neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are stored
in synaptic vesicles in the sending neuron and released into the synaptic gap. Normally, excess molecules of neurotransmitters not taken up by receptor sites are absorbed by the sending neuron in a recycling process called reuptake.

2. Cocaine (orange circles in diagram) blocks the reuptake of dopamine by the sending neuron.

3. The accumulation of dopamine in the synapse overstimulates neurons in key reward pathways
in the brain, producing a pleasurable “high.”
Over time, the brain becomes less capable of producing feelings of pleasure on its own, leading users to “crash” if they stop using the drug.

Sending neuron

Synaptic vesicle

Neurotransmitters

Synaptic gap

Receptor site

Receiving neuron

Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
National Institutes of Health, 2004

Cocaine interferes with the reuptake of dopamine by the transmitting neuron. As a result, more dopamine remains available to bind at receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons, causing greater levels of excitation and stimulation of reward pathways in the brain, producing states of pleasure or euphoria.

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The major preventable cause of death

450,000 deaths annually in the U.S.

Accounts for one in five deaths in the U.S.

Decreases average lifespan by 10 years

Responsible for nearly 1 of 3 cancer deaths in the U.S.

Major contributor to serious health problems

Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the U.S. and worldwide.

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Stimulants

Yes

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

High for
amphetamine and
cocaine overdose

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Risk of Physiological
Dependence

Stimulants have moderate to high levels of physical and psychological dependence, as well as risk of fatal overdose.

Other risks include sleep problems, malnutrition, nasal damage (from snorting), hypertension, and respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease and other diseases (from smoking).

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LSD

Mescaline, Psilocybin, and PCP

Marijuana

© Ann Marie Rousseau/The Image Works

Hallucinogens induce sensory distortions and hallucinations that vary in intensity from relatively mild (marijuana) to extreme (LSD).

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Cannabis is the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) are derived. THC, the active chemical ingredient, causes a mild, relaxed euphoria and enhanced sensory awareness. The most potent form is hashish (“hash”) which is derived from the resin of the plant.

More than 40% of American report having used it at least once, with 10% being active current users.

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Marijuana

Unclear

Risk of Physical
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

Low

Fatal Overdose
potential

Drugs

It is unclear what the risk is of physiological dependence on marijuana, however there is potential of psychological dependence.

Other risks associated with marijuana use include accidents, lung cancer, respiratory disease, pulmonary disease, and paranoia.

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Sociocultural influences

Cultural norms, role of unemployment
and alienation from mainstream culture

Biological influences

Genetic factors

Role of neurotransmitters

Psychological influences

Role of attitudes toward drugs, use of drugs
as forms of self-medication, pleasurable
effects as strong positive reinforcers

Many factors are involved in problems of drug abuse and dependence.

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Detoxification

Drug counseling

Therapeutic drugs

Self-help programs

Treatment focuses on clearing drugs from the body (detox) and use of treatment services, such as drug counseling, therapeutic drugs (e.g., methadone), and self-help programs to help recovering drug abusers get their lives back on track.

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Applying Psychology

in Daily Life

Getting Your Z’s

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Adopt a regular sleep schedule

Don’t try to force sleep

Establish a regular bedtime routine

Establish proper cues for sleeping

Avoid tossing and turning

Avoid daytime naps if miss sleep

Don’t take problems to bed

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Use mental imagery

Adopt a regular exercise program

Limit intake of caffeine, especially in afternoon

Practice rational “self-talk”
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Use mental imagery

Adopt a regular exercise program

Limit intake of caffeine, especially in afternoon

Practice rational “self-talk”

Module 4.2 Sleeping and Dreaming

Module 4.3 Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis

Module 4.4 Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

Consciousness deals with our awareness of ourselves and the world around us.

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Module 4.1

States of Consciousness

William James: Described consciousness as a stream of thoughts

Today’s view: Consciousness is a state of awareness of ourselves and of our world.

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Focused awareness

Drifting consciousness (e.g., daydreaming)

Divided consciousness

Altered states of consciousness

States of unconsciousness during sleep
and dreaming

States or levels of consciousness vary through the course of day from brief states of full absorption, called focused awareness, to states of distracted consciousness, divided consciousness, altered states of consciousness associated with practice of meditation and hypnosis and use of psychoactive drugs, and states of unconsciousness during sleep and dreaming.

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Source: Adapted from 2003 Nerves of Steel survey, commissioned by the Steel Alliance and the Canada Safety Council, retrieved from
www.safety-council.org/info/traffic/distract.html

© mtsyri/Shutterstock.com

© Galina Barskaya/Shutterstock.com

Behaviors Yourself (%) Another Driver (%)
Drinking beverages (e.g., coffee, soft drinks) 65 74
Eating 53 66
Using a cell phone 35 79
Arguing with passengers 27 41
Disciplining children 18 33
Reading 8 26
Putting on makeup, shaving, or combing hair 8 43
Using PDAs, laptops, or other high-tech devices 5 21
Risks of divided consciousness, especially distracted driving.

Driving while on the phone is about as dangerous as driving with a blood alcohol concentration at the legal limit.

Here we see some of the other foolish things that people do when they are driving, all of which reduce their focus on driving in a safe manner.

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Module 4.2

Sleeping and Dreaming

Why do we sleep?

Several functions of sleep have been proposed:

Protective function

Energy conservation

Restore bodily processes

Consolidate newly learned information into lasting memories

May bolster immune system

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© Cengage Learning

12

3

9

6

Humans and other animals operate on a 24-hour biological cycle, called a circadian rhythm. These daily cycles are particularly important in the regulation of sleep.

Many bodily processes fluctuate in a daily pattern. Sleep-wake cycle is close to 24 hours in length. Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus Jet lag is associated with a disruption of the sleep-wake cycle.

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Exposure to light apparently affects the activity of a small structure in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which sends signals to the nearby pineal gland, whose secretion of the hormone melatonin plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks.

This video shows a few possible treatments that can be used for jet lag, with varying efficacy.

How does jet lag affect you?

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Visiting Team
Flies East
Wins 37% of Games

Visiting Team
Flies West
Wins 44% of Games

Getting out of sync with your circadian rhythms causes a reduction in the quality of sleep, as well as jet lag.

The speed of readjustment to the biological block depends on the direction traveled – traveling westward is generally easier than traveling eastward.

Jet lag has a significant enough impact that it affects the performance of sports teams, as you can see here.

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Amplitude

Frequency

Measuring variations of consciousness has historically relied on the electroencephalograph, or EEG.

The EEG records activity in the cortex with a series of brain-wave tracings that vary in amplitude and frequency.

Different EEG patterns are associated with different states of consciousness.

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Stage 1 Sleep
Small, irregular brain waves

Stage 2 Sleep

Sleep Spindles and Mixed EEG Activity

Slow-wave Sleep (Stage 3 and Stage 4 Sleep)

Progressively More Delta Waves (Stage 4 Shown)

Small, irregular brain waves

Sleep Spindle

Stage 1 is a brief stage of light sleep characterized by small, irregular brain waves.

[Click to continue]

During stage 2, brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called sleep spindles, appear against a background of mixed EEG activity.

[Click to continue]

Gradually, your brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in frequency. As you move into stages 3 and 4, which are called slow-wave sleep, delta waves become prominent

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© Cengage Learning

Beta waves are correlated with alertness and problem solving. Alpha waves are associated with resting and relaxation. Delta waves, which are slow rhythmic brain wave patterns, are associated with deep sleep.

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1

2

3

4

1

3

2

4

5

6

7

Waking

REM sleep

Hours of sleep

Sleep stages

After about a half-hour in these deep stages of sleep, the cycle reverses itself, and you gradually move upward through lighter stages of sleep.

When you reach what should be stage 1 once again, you usually go into the fifth stage of sleep, which is called REM sleep.

.

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Awake
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves

REM Sleep
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves

1 Second

50 µv

EEG activity during REM sleep is dominated by high-frequency beta waves that resemble those observed when people are awake and alert.

REM sleep is the stage of sleep during which most dreaming occurs.

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Wakefulness

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

REM

REM

During the course of a night, people usually repeat the sleep cycle about four times.

As the night wears on, the cycle gradually changes. The first REM period is relatively short. Subsequent REM periods are longer, peaking at around 40 to 60 minutes. Additionally, non-REM intervals tend to get shorter, and descents into non-REM stages usually become shallower.

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Time

Wakefulness

Stage1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

REM

Dreams

Dreams typically occur during REM sleep and often have vivid imagery, a story-like quality, and are sometimes bizarre, but seem real to the dreamer.

People may also dream in non-REM sleep, although the dreams tend to be briefer, less frequent, less story-like and lacking in vivid imagery.

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© Cengage Learning

According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, the cerebral cortex tries to make sense of random electrical discharges from the brainstem during sleep, piecing together story-like dreams based on memories and emotional associations.

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© Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, SuperStock 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAC, Paris

The question of what dreams mean continues to be debated. Research shows that the content of dreams is usually familiar. Common themes in dreams include things like falling, being pursued, trying repeatedly to do something, school, sex, being late, eating, being frightened, etc.

Freud believed that dreams represent the deepest wishes, urges, and desires of our unconscious. He believed that wish fulfillment was the major impetus behind the dreams that we have.

Manifest content – The events that actually occur in your dream.

Latent content – The true, underlying meaning of a dream, disguised by symbols.

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4.3

Have you ever been aware that you were dreaming?

Do you ever have the ability to control the content and direction of your dreams?

Lucid dreams involve being aware that one is in a dream state and, less frequently, being able to control the dream that is occurring.

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4.3

How Long We Sleep

When Americans

Go to Bed

Source: CDC, National Health Interview Survey, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers

Source: Adapted from “Sleepless in America,” a survey conducted by the ACNielsen Company, April 2005

Research suggests that the effects of sleep deprivation are impaired attention, reaction time, cognitive speed and accuracy, motor coordination, and decision making.

Drowsiness factors into about 20% of all traffic incidents, as well as contributing to accidents in the workplace.

Sleep deprivation is also linked to health problems, including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and coronary disease.

Both total amount and type of sleep affects functioning

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4.3

This news clip shows examines research linking lack of sleep and childhood obesity.

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4.3

Sleep disorders are quite varied. The most common, however, is insomnia.

Insomnia occurs in 3 different patterns…trouble falling asleep, trouble remaining asleep, and persistent early morning awakening.

Other sleep disorders include narcolepsy, a disorder involving the sudden and irresistible onset of sleep, and sleep apnea, a frequent, reflexive gasping for air that disrupts sleep.

Nightmare disorder involves frequent, disturbing nightmares that interfere markedly with normal sleep, and sleep-terror disorder involves panic-laden “night terrors” that seem to be unrelated to dream content.

Sleepwalking, when persistent and chronic, may be more than a passing phase and may indicate a sleep-wake disorder.

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Module 4.3

Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis

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Transcendental Meditation

Mindfulness Meditation

Kim Eriksen/Flirt/Corbis

Meditation is an ancient discipline which has recently become an area of growing interest.

Involves the focusing on attention and inducing a relaxed, contemplative state.

Transcendental meditation – focusing attention by the repetition of a mantra

Mindfulness meditation – focus on unfolding experiences on a moment-to-moment basis without judgment (e.g, “Am I doing this right?”) bearing on their experiences

Health benefits of meditation include: combating the effects of stress, lowering blood pressure, and relieving chronic pain, insomnia, anxiety, and depression.

Cognitive benefits include improved memory and emotional processing.

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B. BOISSONNET/BSIP/Alamy

Hypnosis involves a systematic procedure involving a narrowing or focusing of attention that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility and states of deep relaxation.

There are varied techniques for inducing hypnosis.

Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair)

Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)

Hypnotic phenomena include:

Hypnotic age regression

Hypnotic analgesia (anesthesia, as used during dental or medical procedures)

Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair) Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)

Posthypnotic suggestion (“After you awake, you will feel itchy all over when you hear the word watermelon.”).

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Role-playing model

Trance state

Hilgard’s neodissociation theory

Dissociated consciousness

The Hidden Observer

There is no consensual agreement about what hypnosis “is” or even how to define it. The most prominent theories of hypnosis include the belief that it involves a trance-like state of consciousness, role-playing theory which focuses on the social interaction between the hypnotist and the subject, and Hilgard’s neodissociation theory or splitting of consciousness.

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Well-developed fantasy life

Vivid sense of imagination

Tendency to be forgetful

Positive attitude toward hypnosis

People vary in their hypnotizablity.

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Module 4.4

Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

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Chemical substances that act on the brain to affect emotional or mental states

Used for a variety of reasons:

Change level of alertness

Alter one’s mental state

Blunt awareness of the stresses
and strains of daily life

Seek inner truths

Psychoactive drugs modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning. They are divided into three general classes: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens.

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When does drug use cross the line to drug abuse?

What is drug dependence?

What is psychological dependence?

Drug Abuse and Dependence

Substance abuse involves maladaptive use of a drug associated with harmful consequences

Drug dependence involves impaired control over the use of the drug, typically associated with physiological or chemical dependences, as marked by a withdrawal syndrome and/or tolerance.

Psychological dependence is characterized by compulsive use of a substance to meet a psychological need (cope with stress, treat anxiety or depression).

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Depressants – drugs that reduce central nervous system activity. Get custom essay samples and course-specific study resources via course hero homework for you service – Include alcohol, barbiturates and tranquilizers, and opioids.

Alcohol is the most widely used psychoactive drug.

Alcohol is classified as a depressant drug, although may incorrectly believe it to be a stimulant. When people drink heavily, the effect is a relaxed euphoria that temporarily boosts self-esteem and decreases inhibitions.

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Progressive Effects of Blood Alcohol Levels

Source: Adapted from Teacher’s Guide: Information about Alcohol, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol

Abuse and Alcoholism, 2003. Retrieved from http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih3/alcohol/guide/info-alcohol.htm

Physical and Psychological Effects of Alcohol

Blood Alcohol Concentration (%) Effects/Risks
0.01–0.05 Relaxation, sense of well-being, loss of inhibition, impaired alertness and judgment
0.06–0.10 Pleasure, numbness of feelings, nausea, sleepiness, emotional arousal, and impaired coordination (especially for fine motor skills)
0.11–0.20 Mood swings, anger, sadness, mania, impaired reasoning and depth perception, and inappropriate social behavior (obnoxiousness)
0.21–0.30 Aggression, reduced sensations, depression, stupor, slurred speech, lack of balance, and loss of temperature regulation
0.031–0.40 Unconsciousness, coma, possible death, loss of bladder control, and difficulty breathing
0.41 and greater Slowed heart rate, death
Alcohol overdose can have fatal consequences. Here we see the general effects of different concentrations of alcohol in the blood.

Dependence on alcohol, both physically and psychologically, affects millions of Americans. Alcohol dependence is commonly called alcoholism.

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Brain Wernicke’s syndrome,
an acute condition characterized
by mental confusion and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration
of the white brain matter

Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia,
a reversible paralysis of the muscles of the eye

Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx

Esophagus Esophageal varices,
an irreversible condition in which
the person can die by drowning in his own blood when the varices open

Lungs Lowered resistance
thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia,
and emphysema

Spleen Hypersplenism

Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy,
a heart condition

Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)

Stomach Gastritis and ulcers

Pancreas Acute and
chronic pancreatitis

Rectum Hemorrhoids

Testes Atrophy of the testes

Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation

Muscles Alcoholic myopathy,
a condition resulting in painful
muscle contractions

Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia

Brain Wernicke’s syndrome, an acute condition characterized by mental confusion
and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration of the white brain matter

Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia, a reversible paralysis
of the muscles of the eye

Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx

Esophagus Esophageal varices, an irreversible condition in which the person can die
by drowning in his own blood when the varices open

Lungs Lowered resistance thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia, and emphysema

Spleen Hypersplenism

Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy, a heart condition

Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)

Stomach Gastritis and ulcers

Pancreas Acute and chronic pancreatitis

Rectum Hemorrhoids

Testes Atrophy of the testes

Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation

Muscles Alcoholic myopathy, a condition resulting in painful muscle contractions

Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia

© Cengage Learning

Alcoholism is associated with a diverse array of physiological maladies, such as liver disease, malnutrition, brain damage, neurological disorders, heart disease, stroke, hypertension, ulcers, cancer, and birth defects.

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This clip involves a person discussing his experience of suffering from alcoholism.

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Alcohol Use Among
College Students

Alcohol on Campus:
The Annual Toll

Source: Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, 2001

Source: Hingson et al., 2002; Sink, 2004; Yaccino, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap. Note: These figures represent the estimated annual numbers of alcohol-related physical assaults, injuries, sexual assaults, and deaths among U.S. college students ages 18 to 24

86.6 Percentage who have used alcohol in their lifetime
83.2 Percentage who have used alcohol within the past year
67.4 Percentage who have used alcohol within the past 30 days
3.6 Percentage who have used alcohol daily within the past 30 days
39.3 Percentage who have had five or more drinks in a row during the last 2 weeks
600,000 physical assaults
500,000 injuries
70,000 sexual assaults
1,800 deaths due to overdose and accidents
College campuses are often described as “alcohol-soaked,” and while that may be a slight overstatement the fact remains that drinking is a major problem at colleges.

Binge drinking and drinking games pose significant health risks, particularly to those who are not accustomed to such alcohol consumption.

It is important not only to monitor your own behaviors and protect yourself, but to also know the signs of dangerous alcohol overdoes and how to respond appropriately if someone has drunk excessively.

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Barbiturates are calming or sedating drugs that have legitimate medicinal use, but can be abused ot lead to dependence. Some examples include amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, and secobarbital.

Tranquilizers are most commonly prescribed to treat anxiety and insomnia. They can be very dangerous in high doses, and should never be combined with alcohol. One category of tranquilizers, benzodiazepines, includes Valium, Xanax, and Halcion.

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Barbiturates and

Tranquilizers

Yes

Risk of physiological
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

High

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Sedatives also have high rates of dependence and fatal overdose potential. They also increase the risk of accidental injuries because they severely impair motor coordination and are especially dangerous when mixed with other drugs, such as alcohol.

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Opioids

Opioids are narcotics, including heroin, morphine, codeine, and Demerol, are addictive drugs that have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties. They also produce an overwhelming sense of euphoria – a “who cares” quality. Heroin, morphine, opium, and codeine are derived from the poppy plants. Synthetic opiates, such as OxyContin and Vicodin, are synthesized in the laboratory to have opiate-like effects.

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Opioids
(Narcotics)

Yes

Risk of Physiological
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

Yes

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Narcotics have high rates of physical and psychological dependence, as well as a high risk for fatal overdose.

Other risks include infectious diseases (through sharing of needles), accidents, and immune suppression.

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Caffeine

Nicotine

Amphetamines

Cocaine

MDMA (“Ecstasy”)

Examples of Stimulants

Stimulants include mild drugs such as caffeine and nicotine, as well as much stronger drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines. Cocaine and amphetamines have similar effects, except the effects of amphetamines last longer. The euphoria created by these drugs is very different from the “who cares,” very relaxed state of narcotics. It is more like an “I can conquer the world,” or very alert state of being.

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Amphetamines are synthetic stimulants that are synthesized in a laboratory.

They boost neurotransmitters in the brain, especially dopamine, to achieve their effects.

Health risks of the abuse of amphetamines include restlessness, loss of appetite, tremors, and heart irregularities that can lead to a coma or death.

Amphetamine psychosis is marked by delusions and hallucinations and can resemble an episode of schizophrenia.

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1. Neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are stored
in synaptic vesicles in the sending neuron and released into the synaptic gap. Normally, excess molecules of neurotransmitters not taken up by receptor sites are absorbed by the sending neuron in a recycling process called reuptake.

2. Cocaine (orange circles in diagram) blocks the reuptake of dopamine by the sending neuron.

3. The accumulation of dopamine in the synapse overstimulates neurons in key reward pathways
in the brain, producing a pleasurable “high.”
Over time, the brain becomes less capable of producing feelings of pleasure on its own, leading users to “crash” if they stop using the drug.

Sending neuron

Synaptic vesicle

Neurotransmitters

Synaptic gap

Receptor site

Receiving neuron

Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
National Institutes of Health, 2004

Cocaine interferes with the reuptake of dopamine by the transmitting neuron. As a result, more dopamine remains available to bind at receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons, causing greater levels of excitation and stimulation of reward pathways in the brain, producing states of pleasure or euphoria.

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The major preventable cause of death

450,000 deaths annually in the U.S.

Accounts for one in five deaths in the U.S.

Decreases average lifespan by 10 years

Responsible for nearly 1 of 3 cancer deaths in the U.S.

Major contributor to serious health problems

Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the U.S. and worldwide.

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Stimulants

Yes

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

High for
amphetamine and
cocaine overdose

Fatal Overdose
Potential

Drugs

Risk of Physiological
Dependence

Stimulants have moderate to high levels of physical and psychological dependence, as well as risk of fatal overdose.

Other risks include sleep problems, malnutrition, nasal damage (from snorting), hypertension, and respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease and other diseases (from smoking).

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LSD

Mescaline, Psilocybin, and PCP

Marijuana

© Ann Marie Rousseau/The Image Works

Hallucinogens induce sensory distortions and hallucinations that vary in intensity from relatively mild (marijuana) to extreme (LSD).

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Cannabis is the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) are derived. THC, the active chemical ingredient, causes a mild, relaxed euphoria and enhanced sensory awareness. The most potent form is hashish (“hash”) which is derived from the resin of the plant.

More than 40% of American report having used it at least once, with 10% being active current users.

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Marijuana

Unclear

Risk of Physical
Dependence

Yes

Risk of Psychological
Dependence

Low

Fatal Overdose
potential

Drugs

It is unclear what the risk is of physiological dependence on marijuana, however there is potential of psychological dependence.

Other risks associated with marijuana use include accidents, lung cancer, respiratory disease, pulmonary disease, and paranoia.

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Sociocultural influences

Cultural norms, role of unemployment
and alienation from mainstream culture

Biological influences

Genetic factors

Role of neurotransmitters

Psychological influences

Role of attitudes toward drugs, use of drugs
as forms of self-medication, pleasurable
effects as strong positive reinforcers

Many factors are involved in problems of drug abuse and dependence.

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Detoxification

Drug counseling

Therapeutic drugs

Self-help programs

Treatment focuses on clearing drugs from the body (detox) and use of treatment services, such as drug counseling, therapeutic drugs (e.g., methadone), and self-help programs to help recovering drug abusers get their lives back on track.

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Applying Psychology

in Daily Life

Getting Your Z’s

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Adopt a regular sleep schedule

Don’t try to force sleep

Establish a regular bedtime routine

Establish proper cues for sleeping

Avoid tossing and turning

Avoid daytime naps if miss sleep

Don’t take problems to bed

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Use mental imagery

Adopt a regular exercise program

Limit intake of caffeine, especially in afternoon

Practice rational “self-talk”

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