Posted: January 31st, 2023

IMPACT OF SHIP COLLISION ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

IMPACT OF SHIP COLLISION ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Abstract
There is no doubt marine transportation is one of the most efficient means of transport; cargo that is too bulky to be transported through other means is best moved using water transport vessels. Majority of the world’s trade items are transported using this method. The use of ships is regarded rather harmless seeing that the number of vessels on the water is not as much as the vehicles on the road, which means that the possibility of collisions and accidents does not compare to that of motor vehicles. However, the intensity of the effects of a single accident are immense. An accident could cause spillage, fire, and leave debris in the water that either kill animals living in the water or become a stumble that could bring about another accident. The pollution that shipping creates is 50% more than it was previously thought.
This study sought to examine marine accidents and collisions that cause pollution on the Nigerian coast. It would then review the impact that oil spills that occur during these accidents have on the marine environment. The study also sought to analyze the best practices to prevent major accident hazards. Lastly, the researcher also sought to evaluate legal practices that have been established to reduce the risk associated with coastal states and their ability to regulate international shipping for the protection of life at sea and the rest of the coastal environment.
The study took up both quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data, using questionnaires and in-depth analysis of past studies to collect data. 200 questionnaire were distributed, of which only 180 of the returned questionnaires were usable. Data collected was analyzed using excel and presented in tables in percentages. The study found that poor communication, fatigue, carelessness, inadequate training and education of employees, and a lack of resources to implement necessary changes as some of the causes of pollution. To avert this menace, it was found that eeffective operations management of vessels through regular servicing, strengthening the supervision of passenger ship operators, improving the maritime accident-cause investigation system, improving vessel safety standards, and proper vessel inspection were some of the solutions that would reduce pollution, accidents and collision on Nigerian waters.

Abbreviations
IMO: International Maritime Organization
Intertanko: International Association of Independent Tanker Owners.
NAMM: Nigerian Association of Master Mariners
USCG: United States Coast Guard
NIMASA: Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency
NPA: Nigerian Ports Authority
UNCLOS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
SOLAS: International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
MARPOL
National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA)

Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Wanjiku for the continuous support of my Ph.D. study and research, for his motivation, patience, enthusiasm and immense knowledge. His guidance has helped me throughout the research and writing of this study. I cannot imagine having a better mentor and advisor.
I would also like to thank my fellow course mates for the company, encouragement and the stimulating discussions. I am also grateful for the sleepless nights we worked together to beat deadlines, and for the fun we have had learning together in class.
I am grateful for my friends John, Jeff, Jayda and Faith for the moral support, company and encouragement as I carried out the research.
My parents Mr. and Mrs. John Kahura have been the focal point of my education. I am eternally grateful for the miles you have walked with me, bringing me up and educating me. I hope to be exactly like you to my children.
Last and most important, I thank the Almighty God for life, success, wisdom and enabling the best helpers to cross my path. I owe everything I am and will be to Him alone.

Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Abbreviations 4
Acknowledgement 5
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 8
1.1 Background 8
1.2 Aims and Objectives 10
1.3 Scope and Limitations 11
1.4 Sources of Information 11
1.5 Structure of Dissertation 11
1.6. Research Ethics 12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 13
2.1. Marine Accident or Collisions Causing Pollution on the Nigerian Coast. 13
2.2. Impact of Oil Spill in the Marine Environment 18
2.2.1. The Nature of the Marine Environment 21
2.2.2. Effects in Different Kinds of Environment 22
2.3. Research Methodology 26
2.3.1. The Research Approach 27
2.3.2. Study Sample 27
2.3.3. Data Collection Instruments 29
2.3.3.1. Analysis of past studies 29
2.3.3.2. Questionnaire 29
2.3.4. Data Analysis 31
2.3.5. Ethical Consideration 31
CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICES TO PREVENT MAJOR MARINE ACCIDENT HAZARDS 33
3.1. Accident-Causing Factors 33
3.1.1. Shipboard Environment 33
3.1.2. Equipment and Material 34
3.1.3. Training and Experience 35
3.1.4. Communications 35
3.1.5. Accident Prevention 35
3.1.6. Improving the maritime traffic environment 36
3.1.7. Improving traffic control and distribution of maritime traffic information 40
3.1.8. Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment and Supervisory Commitment 43
3.1.9. Self-awareness 43
3.1.10. Removing old vessels from the waterways 43
CHAPTER FOUR: LEGAL PRACTICES TO REDUCE THE RISK ASSOCIATED WITH ACCIDENTS AND COLLISIONS 45
4.1. Introduction 45
4.2. Investigation of violations 46
4.3. Wreck Removal 46
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS 49
5.1. Introduction 49
5.2. Discussion 49
5.3. Findings from the Questionnaires 51
5.3.1. Distribution of the respondent’s age 51
5.3.2. Work Experience of the respondents 52
5.3.3. Contribution of accidents and collisions to the deterioration of the marine 52
5.3.4. Political interference paralyses regulations used to ensure safety of the marine 53
5.3.5. State of disaster preparedness for collisions and accidents on the Nigerian coast 54
5.3.6. Poor national economy as the contributing factor towards the lack of enforcement of 55
5.3.7. Most prevalent causes of collisions and accidents on the Nigerian coast 56
5.3.8. Suggestions on measures that can be applied to reduce or prevent accidents on 56
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION 60
6.1. Introduction 60
6.2. Main Conclusion 60
6.3. Recommendations 62
References 66
Appendix 69

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
There is no doubt that marine transport is considered one of the main economic development pillars in any country. Most of the world’s trade and exactly 75% of it is transported by sea. That is because marine transport has many advantages compared to other means of transportation such as the huge capacity and cheap costs. These advantages have increased the dependence on marine transport and in turn increased the revenues of hard currency. Thus, we see how marine transport can serve in improving the balance of these countries, providing jobs for the unemployed and constructing cities. With the execution of marine projects, such as building ports, docks or starting marine companies, these things lead naturally to opening vacancies for national employment and constructing the cities where the projects are executed.
The importance of marine transport in the Kingdom lies in its long coast extending for more than 1500 miles, in addition to knowing that 95-90% of the Kingdom’s imports and exports are transported through sea. Based on this fact, the Kingdom has paid great attention to this sector, by constructing modern ports, shipyards, starting marine companies and institutions and modernizing the commercial marine fleet, out of its belief in the role of marine transport in fulfilling the Kingdom’s needs. It is known that the commercial marine fleet supports the military fleet at times of peace and war. Based on all that, decree no. 149 was issued on 28/8/1396 AH announcing the start of the Ministry’s under secretariat for transport affairs to be responsible for supervising and organizing all transport means except that through air.
New research suggests that the impact of shipping on climate change has been seriously underestimated and that the industry is currently churning out greenhouse gases at nearly twice the rate of aviation. Shipping, although traditionally thought of as environmentally friendly, is growing so fast that the pollution it creates is at least 50 per cent higher than previously thought. Maritime emissions are also set to leap by 75 per cent by 2020. The International Maritime Organization, the UN body set up to regulate shipping, has set up a working group due to report this year. Research seen by the group suggests previous calculations, which put the total at about 600 million tonnes per year, are significantly short. The true figure is set to be more than one billion tonnes, according to a confidential report produced for the IMO by Intertanko, the International Association of Independent Tanker Owners.
With land-based polluters already heavily regulated, the shipping industry could provide the most cost-effective way to reduce climate change gases. Since the 1970s, the bulk of commercial vessels have run on heavy “bunker” fuel, a by-product of the oil refining process for higher grade fuels. One industry insider described it as “the crap that comes out the other end that’s half way to being asphalt. It has potentially lethal side effects such as the release of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and sulphuric acid. Recent studies in the US and the Netherlands showed pollutants from ships contribute half of the smog-related sulphur dioxide in Los Angeles. In Rotterdam, North Sea shipping lanes run within 25 miles of the shore, spewing pollution that can travel up to 1,000 miles. “If you want to improve air quality on land, you will have a larger effect from spending one euro at sea than you will have spending one euro on land,” said Pieter Hammingh, from the Dutch environment agency. There is no doubt that marine transport is considered one of the main economic development pillars in any nation. The issue of transportation and the environment is paradoxical in nature. The relationships between transport and the environment are multidimensional. The most important impacts of transport on the environment relate to climate change, air quality, noise, water quality, soil quality, biodiversity and land take. algal bloom, anoxic event, anoxic waters, aquatic toxicology, cultural eutrophication, cyanotoxin, environmental impact of shipping: eutrophication, fish diseases and parasites, fish kill, friendly floaters, great pacific garbage patch, hypoxia, invasive species, marine debris, mercury in fish, nonpoint source pollution, North Atlantic Garbage Patch, nutrient pollution, Ocean acidification, Ocean deoxygenation, oil spill, particle, plastic particle water pollution, point source pollution, Shutdown of thermohaline circulation, storm water, surface runoff, upwelling, urban runoff and water pollution environmental externalities, environmental externalities assessment, dimensions, the environment link of transport, transport and the environment, affected species, sound pollution, ship impacts, exhaust emission, international regulation, sewages, cleaning, solid waste, bilge water are aspects of environmental pollution from maritime transportation in Nigeria reviewed to enable maritime managers in the country be wary.

1.2 Aims and Objectives
The aim of the project is:
The impact of pollution caused by collision on Nigerian Coast
The Objectives of this project is:
1. Identify marine accident or collisions causing pollution on the Nigerian coast.
2. To review the impact of oil spill in marine environment.
3. To analyse best practices to prevent major marine accident hazards.
4. To evaluate the legal practices to further reduce the risk associated with coastal states and its ability to regulate international shipping purposes and protection of life at sea.

1.3 Scope and Limitations
This dissertation considers the absence of adequate information, prioritization of environmental problems. However, taking the West and Central African region, sewage and solid wastes of domestic origin and their effects on public health are of the highest priority. Habitat degradation especially coastal erosion, leading to loss of coastal infrastructures is also a major problem. Of secondary importance are declining fishery resources, declining water quality and discharges from industrial operations including petroleum exploration and refining.

1.4 Sources of Information
The secondary research provided in this dissertation is from books, journals, academic reports. Secondary information is gathered from relevant periodicals and sources were accessed before the information was used. The primary sources of this research included questionnaires and interview with relevant individuals connected to the investigation.
1.5 Structure of Dissertation
This dissertation is structured according to the order of the objectives, concluding with the analysis of the primary and secondary data collected and the outcomes derived from the research study.
Chapter one introduces the problem of increased number of accidents and collisions on the Nigerian coast that are causing massive pollution observed there.
Chapter two is the chapter that reviews existing literature from past research and publications. It explores the frequency of accidents and collisions on the Nigerian coast and evaluates some of the common reasons for the collisions. It also determines the impact that the oil spills have on the Nigerian marine environment. This chapter also contains the research methodology section that examines the process of collecting both primary and secondary data. Besides the research approach, the chapter also indicates the process of data analysis.
Chapter three discusses practices that can be used to reduce or prevent marine accidents. It begins by first discussing accident-causing factors and the goes ahead to discuss accident prevention strategies that companies and individuals should take.
Chapter four discusses legal provisions and practices that are meant to reduce the risk of accidents and collisions. Chapter five discusses and analyses the findings of the research while chapter six concludes the research, discussing whether the researcher has met the objectives of the research or not.
1.6. Research Ethics
This research was carried out with due consideration of best practices with respect to anonymity. Every interviewee and survey respondent was informed prior to the interview or survey, of the purpose of the data collection and how it would be used. No information collected was sensitive to any company. Before undertaking any primary research collection, the supervisor was informed, of the sources and method, and their agreement sought.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Marine Accident or Collisions Causing Pollution on the Nigerian Coast.
The Nigerian coastal environment has been suffering untold degradation mainly because of the activities of tanker and tanker men, but the worst of the causes are tanker accidents that happen at sea (Okechukwu, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay). Tanker accidents happen depending on the level of safety measures taken up when transporting cargo, which is mostly petroleum products given the fact that Nigeria is a major oil producer (Onwuegbuchunam, 2013). It is widely believed that eighty percent of these accidents occur because of human error while the remaining twenty percent is cause by equipment or technical failure. Some marine accidents have had a high impact on the society, prompting international protocols and conventions with unforeseen consequences. For example, an increase in oil prospecting activities along the Niger Delta region in Nigeria has brought tremendous increase in the number of marine vessel accidents, leading to loss of lives, personal injuries and damage to the ship, not mentioning the effect that this has on aquatic life (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). It is even more worrying that these accidents continue to increase despite the measures put in place to keep them from happening. For example, statistics released in 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer showed that between the years 2000 and 2009, 552 persons died either after marine vessels collided or capsized in Nigeria’s inland waters alone (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). This figure indicates an average 55 deaths per year as the damage caused, excluding cargo and vessels losses or damage and the spillage of water on the marine environment (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service).
Based on circumstantial evidence produced in some of the cases investigated, the causes for the accidents include overloading, abandoned wrecks on navigation channels, excessive speeding, poor attention to the condition of the weather, inadequate navigational aids and incompetence (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). These causes are not unique to Nigeria. In Hong Kong, a study on 471 cases of marine accidents that happened 1941-2002 showed that 57% of them occurred when the vessel was at sea while 43% occurred when the vessels were ashore. Among the reasons stated for the accidents, 49% of them were attributed to human factors, 35% to technical factors and 16% to environmental factors (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service).
One of the major effects of collision is that it leads to spills on Nigerian waters. For example, in 1978, there were major spills along the coastal zone among them GOCON’s Escravos spill of about 300,000 barrels and SPDC’s Forcados Terminal tank failure in the same year that spilled 580,000 barrels (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). There have been more spills after this and the Department of Petroleum Resources approximated that between the years 1976 and 1996, there had been at least 4647 accidents resulting in the spilling of close to 2.5 million barrels into the environment (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). The map below indicates the prevalence of accidents and collisions on the Nigerian coast.

Map indicating incidences of risk due to accidents or collisions of vessels on the Nigerian coast (Safety4Sea: Risk4sea, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online).
The increase in the number of collisions in Nigerian waters, which mainly causes spills, together with the associated environmental implications has been a cause of concern particularly due to the measures adopted so far by both the local and the international organizations that are meant to improve the standards of navigation and shipping (Okechukwu, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay).
In 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers, it was reported that there had been 102 wrecks at 62 different locations within the Lagos port area and another 7 wrecks at the Lagos bar, which were expensive to remove. It is obvious that this large number of wrecks create great danger for navigation for on-going ships visiting the Lagos area (Dogarawa, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). When investigating the causes of these wrecks, it was found that human error was a predominant factor that caused most of the capsizing. However, vessels can also capsize when they hit high and steep breaking waves from the side which may subject them to severe rolling or pitching, gale and loss of stability. However, factors like this can be controlled by providing internal buoyancy compartments that ensure that the boat remains afloat even when fully laden (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). The possibility of capsizing is also lowered by reducing the period of exposure, that is, the number of trips a boat makes per day, by trying to get accurate wave data, a detailed study of the wave pattern or by developing ways to encounter dangerous waves (Dogarawa, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). Avoiding overloading could also help to maintain enough freeboard and prudent observance of the national maritime rules and regulations that are critical in averting boat accidents.
In 2009, the Nigerian Association of Master Mariners (NAMM) identified reasons for accidents and collisions on Nigeria waters to be poor pilotage services, absence of a system to administer, monitor and investigate mishaps, lack of an adequate lighting at the ports, failure to sound signals, inappropriate ship speed, lights or shapes that are off and inappropriate directions and supervision (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Of these, the leading cause of the collisions is improper lookout, which can further be classified into three, which are no lookout, failure to recognize other vessels just before collision despite standing on lookout and insufficient observation of the movement of other vessels even after recognizing them (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). At the port, causes of collisions and accidents are inappropriate take-over, inappropriate maneuverings, poor selection and maintenance of course, insufficient attention to weather or sea-surface conditions, inappropriate mooring or anchoring, insufficient maintenance, inspection or recklessness when handling lubricating oil or fuel and insufficient study of the waterways.
The United States Coast Guard (USCG), on the other hand, contends that the top most cause of collisions and fatalities on the sea is capsizing, which is caused mainly by improper loading, overloading and other factors like foul weather (United Nations Environment Programme, 2002). The second most common reason is the anchoring of the stern. Every year, a boat will capsize and people get injured or killed because the vessel is anchored to the stern. However, a person could also fall overboard and die when the ship is being moored at the anchor (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). People who lose their life in this way, however, increase their chances of encountering danger through unsafe footing or unsafe acts like sitting on the gunwales or the sideboards. Standing or moving around without holding on to something during rough times at sea can also be a cause (United Nations Environment Programme, 2002). When the same organization, the USCG, released statistics, it was proven that 61% of the accidents were caused by improper vessel operation and 21% were caused by alcohol usage with bad weather. 14% were caused by turbulent waters while improper vessel loading accounted for 12% of the total (Dogarawa, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). It was noted that the stability of a vessel is affected by the weight that the vessel is carrying and how this weight is positioned, in relation to the actual weight of the vessel itself.
A research was established to determine the contribution of the human element in the accidents experienced on the sea (Nordquist et al., 2003). The study sought to investigate the relationship between various probable causes of the accident considering the outcome of the accident. It found that factors related to human error such as communication, organization procedures and routines, judgement and reactions, and individual onboard situations constitute some of the commonly reported sources of marine accidents (Nordquist et al., 2003). Further, empirical findings of the study found that the number of fatal crew injuries is greater for tankers than it is for bulk vessels and containers, for fire or explosion accidents than it is for other kinds of accidents and for multiple compared to single-vessel accidents (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). Non-fatal crew injuries are also greater for multiple-vessel and fire accidents. The study also found that the number of both fatal and non-fatal accidents is greater for docked or moored vessels than they are for underway vessels.
Apparently, both human and technological factors contribute to boat mishaps. Complexity adds to the probability that the of system failure generally through unforeseen interaction between subsystem. It has also been noted that most accidents occur at the end of the day when the environment is dark (Nordquist et al., 2003). This is also the time that many people drink, and this can induce bad judgment among boat drivers. Accidents are frequent during the rainy season when there is fog and rain and when the waters swell up making navigation dangerous. Ironically, we still hear of accidents despite the fact that Section 40 of the Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA) Act 2007empowers the agency to detain any ship that is considered unfit to proceed to sea in case any defect is noted in the ship, its machinery or equipment that can be increased by overloading, unsafe loading or under-manning (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Section 41 of the same Act also stipulates a fine to the sum of one million Naira or conviction against persons who use, cause or permit navigation of a defective vessel that can endanger human life. By now, it is expected that these law provisions should have already significantly reduced the cases of collision and accidents in Nigeria’s waters are fully enforced.
In places where these accidents occur, the law requires that NIMASA investigate into the causes of the shipwrecks or other casualties affecting the ships to lay charges of either misconduct or incompetence on the part of the seafarers in relation to such casualties (Okechukwu, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay). However, it appears that the Nigerian Marine Board only investigates ocean-going and sizeable coastal ships, neglecting the small ships and boats that offer essential services to people, and are the ones that will often be involved in the accidents. In addition, the inspection accorded to the big vessels is also not satisfactory. The reason for this is that political interference inhibits the proper functioning of the inspector board (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). This means that if there are no proper safeguards protecting both the small and the large ships, the situation regarding marine safety will never improve.
2.2. Impact of Oil Spill in the Marine Environment
Marine pollution is known to result to effects such as damage to the ecosystem, damage to the esoteric value of beaches, environmental degradation and other similarly adverse effects. The effects of marine pollution are extensive, and they affect the fauna, the flora and the entire ecology of the coastal environment (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). In this section, we review literature on the effects of oil spillage on the marine environment.
Oil spilled by a damaged tanker or after a collision between marine vessels, pipelines or offshore oil rigs coats everything it touches and becomes the unwelcome long-term part of the ecosystem it affects. When an oil slick from a large oil spill reaches the beach, it coats and clings to every grain of sand and every rock it touches (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). When it washes to the coastal marshes, mangrove forests or other wetlands, the plants absorb the oil, leading to damage and making the entire costal environment unsuitable as a wildlife habitat (Nordquist et al., 2003). When some of the oil eventually stops floating on the water surface and begins to sink, it results in the same devastating effects that it had on the surface, killing or contaminating fish and other organisms that are essential in the global food chain.
Oil can impact an environment, mainly the plants and animals involved, through different mechanisms. The first is through physical smothering, affecting physiological functions. Secondly, it causes chemical toxicity that gives rise to lethal and sub-lethal effects, which may impair cellular functions. Thirdly, it causes ecological changes primarily leading to the loss of key organisms from a community and the takeover of habitats by opportunistic species (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). Lastly, oil spillage may cause indirect effects such as the loss of shelter or habitat and consequently, elimination of ecologically important species.
The nature and duration of these effects depend on a variety of factors such as the quantity and type of oil spilt, its behavior in the marine environment, the location of the spill in terms of physical characteristics and ambient conditions, and the timing, in terms of prevailing weather conditions (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Other key factors include the biological composition of the affected environment, ecological importance of the affected species and their sensitivity to oil pollution. Lastly, the selection of appropriate clean-up techniques and the effectiveness with which these operations are conducted can also have a significant influence on the effects of an oil spill.
The potential effects of an oil spill are also determined by the speed at which the oil is diluted or dissipated by natural processes. This determines the geographical extent of the affected area and whether or not the sensitive environmental resources are exposed to high oil concentrations and its toxic components, for a significant period (Beckman, 2013). Of similar importance is the extent to which organisms are vulnerable and sensitive to oil pollution. Vulnerable organisms are those which, because of their positioning in the marine environment, at either the sea surface or the water’s edge, are more likely to come into contact with oil (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). These organisms would be acutely affected by this exposure to oil and its component chemicals. However, less sensitive organisms are more likely to weather this exposure, but only if it is short-term (Rodgers, 2013). Because of this, some countries’ shorelines are mapped with indices depending on the levels of sensitivity in different areas of the coastline. For example, sensitivity atlases accord mangrove forests and saltmarshes a high index while sandy beaches get a low sensitivity index.
The characteristics of the spilt oil are also important for predicting or determining the extent of the damage. A large quantity spill of highly persistent oil, such as a heavy fuel oil, has the ability to cause widespread damage in the intertidal zones of shorelines through smothering (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). However, toxic effects are less likely for the heavy fuel oil and any other similarly highly viscous oil that has a low water solubility (Onwuegbuchunam, 2013). The chemical components of this oil will therefore have a low biological availability. Therefore, oil incorporated within the asphalt pavement is similarly less bio-available, irrespective of its duration on the shoreline, although indirect damage may occur due to habitat modification.
In contrast, oils such as kerosene and other light oils contain chemical components that have a higher biological availability and this means that resulting in damage through toxicity is more likely (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). However, rapid dissipation through dispersion and evaporation has showed that light oils may end up causing less damage overall, as long as the sensitive resources are sufficiently distant from the location of the spill (Okechukwu, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay). On the other hand, effects of spillage can be greater and occur for longer where dilution is slow such as when the pollutant is trapped in muddy sediments or in an enclosed area such as a shallow lagoon with poor water exchange. At exposure levels that are lower than those sufficient to cause mortality, the presence of toxic components may lead to sub-lethal effects such as impaired reproduction and feeding.
The marine environment is highly complex and filled with natural fluctuations in species abundance, composition and distribution over space and time, and are a fundamental feature of its normal functioning. In this same environment, animals and plants have varying degrees of natural resilience to changes that may occur in their habitats (Rodgers, 2013). The natural adaptations of these organisms to environmental stress, combined with their breeding strategies, provide important mechanisms for coping with seasonal and daily fluctuations in ambient conditions (United Nations Environment Programme, 2002). This inbuilt resilience means that some animals and plants are able to withstand some level of contamination. However, spills are not the only sources of pressure on marine habitats, other activities in the shipping industry such as widespread over-exploitation of natural resources and the chronic urban and industrial pollution that finds its way to marine environments also contributes, highly, to the degree of variability in a marine ecosystem.
2.2.1. The Nature of the Marine Environment
The marine environment can be characterized or described using a number of scales, ranging from ocean-level processes to those that occur at genetic and species level. The scale of relevance here are the habitats, species, and marine landscapes. Their relationship can be summarized in the following way:
The species provide the globally accepted original classification of biological diversity, with well-established rules of taxonomy to distinguish between different types (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). This classification is arranged in hierarchies of families, orders, classes and others.
Habitats are also a part of the marine environment. They house species that consistently live together, and are different depending on the species involved.
The marine landscape as a whole is therefore comprised of habitats that consistently occur together despite being derived from different parts of the habitat classification hierarchy
2.2.2. Effects in Different Kinds of Environment
Most oils spilled on the water float on the sea surface and waves, winds and current spread them over a wide area. Some low viscosity oils may spread naturally within the top layer of the water column particularly in the presence of breaking waves and will be rapidly diluted. If this happens continually over time, concentrations of these oils may be sustained close to the point of release (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Notwithstanding, the impact of the spill on species living lover in the water column or the sea bed is lower, although the effects could rise when there is sunken wrecks, in case of spillage of heavy oils or when there are residues after an oil fire (Cormack, 1999). Below is an evaluation of the effects of spillage on different kinds of aquatic organisms
a. Plankton
The pelagic zones of the oceans and the seas support a wide range of simple planktonic organisms composed of bacteria, plants and animals. This could also include the larvae and eggs of invertebrates and fish, especially those that eventually settle on the shoreline or the seabed (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). Planktons naturally suffer extremely high levels of mortality through predation but changes in the environmental conditions could also make their survival unsustainable. In contrast, favorable conditions with plenty of nutrients may cause planktons to bloom. However, when the balance of nutrients available in the water is altered, populations of them collapse and the planktons will degrade (Cormack, 1999). The ecosystem has evolved with time to respond to changes like this by enabling copious production of the planktons in only a short period of time. The sensitivity of the planktons to exposure to oil has been well established and the potential effects of this are far-reaching. However, the typically massive over-production o the young life stages provide a buffer for recruitment from adjacent areas that are not affected by the spill, and this makes up for the lost eggs and larvae.
b. Effects on Fish
Although juvenile stages of fish are highly susceptible to relatively low concentrations of oil on the water column, adult fish are far more resilient and the effects of the slight spillage on the stock levels can be minimal (Onwuegbuchunam, 2013). This is because free-swimming fish are able to actively avoid oil. Mortalities of adult fish are associated with very high, localized concentrations of dispersed oil in the water column and in storm conditions, because substantial amounts of the light oils are able to dissolve into the water.
c. Effects on Seabirds
Seabirds are the most vulnerable open water creatures and in many incidents, large numbers of them have perished. Sea ducks, auks and other species that live in flocks on the sea surface are particularly at risk. However, mortality of seabirds can also arise from the loss of a food source or habitat once their food dies due to oil spillage or their habitats are contaminated with oil (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Fouling of plumage is one of the most obvious effects of oil on birds. This is because a bird’s plumage serves to trap warm air against the skin, providing both insulation and buoyancy. However, when oiled, the delicate structure of the protective layers of the feathers and insulation down are disrupted, allowing seawater to come into direct contact with the skin (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). This leads to loss of body heat and the bird may ultimately succumb to hypothermia. In a cold climate, the effects may be even more adverse because a small oil spot on the bird’s plumage could be sufficient to cause mortality. For some birds, there exists a layer of fat beneath the bird’s skin that acts as both an insulating layer and an energy reserve. This protective layer could be rapidly consumed when the bird attempts to keep itself warm. In addition, a bird that is suffering from cold, loss of buoyancy and exhaustion will easily drown. Futhermore, an oiled plumage reduces the bird’s ability to take off and to fly in search of food in order to escape its predators.
When oiled, a bird’s natural instinct is to clean itself by preening. This could spread the oil further to otherwise clean areas of the body, increasing the chances of loss of insulation (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). In addition, when preening, the bird is likely to ingest some oil, which can have serious effects such as intestinal or lung hemorrhage, congested lungs, pneumonia, or liver and kidney damage (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). A bird can also transfer the oil on its plumage to it live young or hatching eggs. Oil contamination of eggs may lead to egg thinning, failure to hatch or that the hatched birds could have developmental abnormalities.
There is no established relationship between the quantity of oil that has been spilt and the possible impact that this could have on seabirds. A relatively small spill during the breeding season or in a place where large numbers of the birds have congregated can be more harmful than a large spill at a different time of the year and in another environment (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Following a decline, some bird species will respond to the depletion by laying more eggs, breeding more often or by younger birds joining the breeding group sooner. These strategies could help in species recovery, although this also depends on the food supply, habitat availability and other similar factors (Cormack, 1999). This could successfully prevent a long-term impact on the population level. However, in some circumstances, there is the risk that an oil spill could tip a marginal colony into a permanent decline.
Although cleaning and rehabilitation of oiled birds can be done, only a small fraction of them survive the cleaning process (Onwuegbuchunam, 2013). A smaller proportion of them are able to return to the wild and interbreed freely. Penguins are the exception in that their resilience allows them to survive after the cleaning process.
d. Effect on Marine Mammals and Reptiles
Sea mammals such as whales, dolphins and other cetaceans may be affected by oil floating on the surface when they come up to breath or to breach. This could harm their nasal cavities and their eyes (Solan & Whiteley, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). Where mortalities have been recorded, death has been ruled to have been from other factors besides the oil. However, species that depend on fur to regulate their body temperatures could be vulnerable to oil because it could result in hypothermia or overheating during hot weather, causing death (Rodgers, 2013). Floating oil could however adversely affect marine reptiles particularly turtles if the spillage occurs during nesting season (Cormack, 1999). If oil stand on the beach or nests are disrupted during cleanup, eggs and hatchlings may be destroyed. Adult turtles could suffer membrane inflammation increasing their susceptibility to infection. However, turtles can successfully be cleaned and returned to sea.
e. Effects on Shallow Inshore Waters
Oil damage in shallow waters is mostly caused by oil mixing with the water column courtesy of strong wave action and the inappropriate use of dispersants too close to the shore. In many cases, the dilution capacity is sufficient to keep the concentrations of oil on the water below harmful levels (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). In this case, different species of sea grass may remain unharmed. Coral reefs are highly sensitive to pollution and may take a long time to recover from oil. Dispersed oil presents the greatest risk of damage to coral reefs, and this is increased by turbulence from breaking waves which encourages dispersion of spilt oil (Onwuegbuchunam, 2013). Mangroves are naturally salt tolerant trees but are highly vulnerable to oil spills. Their sensitivity to oil spillage is attributed, to a large extent, to the substrate in which the trees are growing. This is because mangroves typically grow in dense muddy anaerobic sediments and rely on oxygen supplied through its small pores on aerial roots. Heavy oil inundation of the root systems may block this oxygen supply and cause the mangroves to die (Roberts, 2007). However, in open aerated sediments that allow relatively free water exchange, the roots systems can draw oxygen from the seawater and this gives them a high tolerance to smothering by oil.
2.3. Research Methodology
This study sought to investigate the impact of vessel collisions and accidents on the marine environment in the Nigerian inland and coastal waterways. To determine this, the researcher sought to identify marine accidents or collision that could be causing pollution on the Nigerian coast (Solan & Whiteley, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). He then sought to review the impact of the oil spill in the marine environment of the Nigerian coast and the best practices that could be used to prevent marine accident hazards. Lastly, the study sought to evaluate legal practices that could be used to further reduce the risk associated with coastal states and their ability to regulate international shipping goals for the protection of life at sea (Onwuegbuchunam, 2013). To analyze this information thoroughly, there needs to be sufficient data analysis and this chapter discusses the best approach that were used to fully answer the questions at hand. It also discusses the data collection approach and instruments used to collect data. Lastly, it gives a summary of the methods to be used to analyze data to ensure that the efforts to gather data lead to the derivation of information that can be used for policy change among other needs.
2.3.1. The Research Approach
For data collection, this study employed both a qualitative and quantitative approach. The quantitative approach comprised of questionnaires that were used to seek opinions from experts to give their opinions on the frequency of collisions, reasons for the accidents, what is being done to reduce the frequency and other questions based on the objectives states (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). The qualitative approach involved seeking information from previous studies and reports from the Nigerian Port Authority, Maritime Board reports, and peer-review studies done by various researchers on the state of pollution in Nigerian coastal waters (Roberts, 2007).
This multi-method approach is highly recommended by many researchers because it is felt that this triangulation between different methods allows the researcher to approach the issue being discussed from many angles, ensuring that the relationship between different variables is clearly established. The multi-method was also useful because information derived using one method could be confirmed using another method (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). One method also added information that another would omit. This allowed the researcher to acquire concrete information on the issues under discussion. Lastly, the method helps to capture only the strength of each method because each method overcomes the weaknesses of the other.
2.3.2. Study Sample
The target population for the study included personnel working at the dock, inside the ship and policy makers who work with boards and agencies involved in the management of activities on the country’s coastal waters (Roberts, 2007). They include agencies such as NIMASA, the Marine Board and the Nigerian Ports Authority among others. It was hoped that the people working in the industry would be better positioned to give information on what was happening on the ground and policies that are created to regulate these activities. A sample would be taken out of the population, and this would form the primary source of information. The people would be selected from among workers working in two Nigerian seaports randomly chosen. The sample would consist of 200 persons, a number that was thought to be large enough to provide reliable and an accurate picture of the issues surrounding the issue of safety and pollution in the marine environment.
Of the 200 respondents, 180 of them would be drawn from the population of workers from the port and seafarers because it was thought that these people would provide better information regarding the issues in comparison to officials working in government offices (Beckman, 2013). However, this also posed a challenge because it would be harder to locate some of the respondents such as seafarers who might be in the sea (Solan & Whiteley, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). The researcher hoped that she would however schedule her visit at a time when vessels are cleaned or unloaded because then, seafarers are usually available and could make a great contribution to the study (Roberts, 2007). To get access to them would however require that they be informed prior because many of them disperse to their homes and families immediately (Beckman, 2013). The research took note of the Nigerian Nautical Training Institute as the location to seek the seafarers. This is because a number of them spend time their seeking to expand their knowledge when free.
The respondents would be chosen through cluster sampling. This is when the population are divided into strategic groups and persons are chosen from these groups randomly (Solan & Whiteley, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). This ensures equal chances of representation for each member of the population because all job groups will be represented.
2.3.3. Data Collection Instruments
2.3.3.1. Analysis of past studies
Besides the opinions of persons working in the maritime industry, the study also required information from past research. This information not only added to the quality of research, but it also provided a starting point for developing the questionnaires (Dogarawa, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). The researcher was able to identify important area in which to seek information from the respondents (Roberts, 2007). In addition, any information that the researcher considered important and was not included in the past research, the researcher was quick to note this and include it in the questionnaires.
2.3.3.2. Questionnaire
Incorporating a questionnaire in the study was primarily meant to determine the extent to which the policies and rules governing maritime rules were followed and the effects that this had on the industry as a whole. To get this information, the responses had to be valid and reliable. A majority of closed-ended questions were designed in accordance to the 5-likert scale chosen by the study (Elenwo & Akankali, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). This is because closed-ended questionnaires are associated with low costs in terms of the money spent and the time taken to collect the data. The respondents are happy answering this kind of questionnaire because it takes less time to answer and that the respondent will answer the questions when free which means that he will give thought to his replies.
Other advantages are that issuing of questionnaires, unlike interviews, ensure anonymity of the respondent, without giving room for interviewer bias. The questions asked in a questionnaire are standardized, and are not affected by interviewer bias whose tone can incline an interviewee to give a certain reply (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). Besides the closed-ended questions, the researcher also included one question where respondents were asked to give their opinion on changes they would want made to ensure that the number of accidents, collisions and the pollution that results from them are all reduced.
Advantages and Limitations
Using an online survey by sending questionnaires is advantageous for various reasons. It is one of the most affordable ways to gather quantitative data because there are no printing costs and no need to hire surveyors (Beckman, 2013). The results got are quick, which means that you can get results in only a short time unlike others like observation where the researcher would need to spend a lot of time observing. Questionnaires allow the researcher to gather information from a large audience. At a relatively low cost, the researcher can gather information from respondents in two different ports and in various government agencies (Dogarawa, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). Accessibility to a lot of information makes the scientific analysis and prediction easy because the researcher is able to collect a large amount of data. The more data is gathered, the clearer the results become. Lastly, user anonymity is an advantage associated with questionnaires because respondents are not asked to state their names. This way, they can give their opinion on anything without fear.
The downside of this method is that there is the possibility of dishonesty. Respondents may fail to be 100 percent truthful with their answers due to bias and the desire to protect their privacy. These people should be encouraged to give the true answer with no bias and to be assured that their privacy will be protected (Beckman, 2013). The lack of conscientious responses is also a limitation in this method because there is no way to know if the respondent has really thought the question through before answering. Sometimes, they skip through the questions and this reduces the number of usable questionnaires. The solution to this is to make the questions simple and the survey short, making it interesting to read through. It is also difficult for the respondent to convey his emotions and feelings in the questionnaire. Without administering the questionnaire face-to-face, there is no way to observe facial expressions, body language or reaction.
2.3.4. Data Analysis
The raw data gathered from the questionnaires called for a quantitative method of data analysis. Microsoft Excel was used to analyze the data and information gotten was presented in tables, graphs and charts to give a sense of measurement to the results.
Information from the qualitative method of data collection was also presented in tables, graphs and charts to enable the researcher to compare the information presented by the literature and the kind that is presented by the questionnaire (Beckman, 2013).
2.3.5. Ethical Consideration
The researcher upheld ethics throughout the research process by taking note and respecting the rights and authorities of all the stakeholders involved in the research. He sought permission from the Nigerian Port Authority management since the data to be collected was under their jurisdiction (Atsegbua, Akpotaire & Dimowo, 2004). The researcher first had to explain vividly the reasons for conducting the research, the information the researcher wanted to derive and how this information would be used to improve safety and to reduce pollution in the marine environment of Nigeria’s coast.
The respondents got the assurance from the researcher that their personal information would be kept safe and would not be reproduced as any part of the research and subsequent studies (Dogarawa, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). The primary data was collected anonymously, with no requirements to fill in any personal information. They were only supposed to indicate their job group, since all questionnaires were alike.
Secondary data collected from the study was cited properly to rule out the possibility of plagiarism.

CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICES TO PREVENT MAJOR MARINE ACCIDENT HAZARDS
3.1. Accident-Causing Factors
3.1.1. Shipboard Environment
The environment in the shipping industry is one filled with dangerous factors such as motion, vibration, noise, temperature extremes, rotating machinery and sometimes, the tension at sea is more than that which is encountered ashore. There is also the possibility that important duties are handed to persons who are likely to become seasick (Andersson et al., 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). This means that when they go out to rest, other people have to take over their tasks and this divided attention could lead to mistakes. Sometimes, the area may be left unmanned, increasing risks and the possibility of danger such as an accident or collision. This means that a seasick person should be given only light duties and should keep off those that require caution, alertness or agility (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). Medicines taken to prevent motion sickness are also known to cause drowsiness. Passengers or seafarers taking them should avoid areas such as the deck where they can easily be thrown out of the ship. These measures apply to both cargo and passenger ships.
Extreme temperatures impair performance. Besides the debilitating effects of heat exhaustion, sunstroke, hypothermia and frostbite among others (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). It also leads to lesser physical impairments such as increased reaction time, loss of dexterity and coordination, decreased mental awareness, and fatigue (Okechukwu, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay). In addition, moving about on a vessel that is going against angry seas takes physical effort, which in time could wear the person out, even those that are most fit. Fatigue is a major cause of carelessness.
Noise has both physiological and psychological effects on a person’s body. Sustained high noise levels such as extremely loud sounds of short duration can lead to permanent hearing loss (Iduk & Nitonye, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Confinement aboard a ship in the fog can be unnerving and with the constant sound of the fog horn, which is sounded every hours, sometimes day on end, a person can develop hearing impairments. Similar detrimental effects can be caused by constant gun firing. These noises create tension and an atmosphere that could lead to an accident.
The sun shines brightly at the sea, causing glare conditions. Proper eye shading is important. On the extreme end is night vision. A bright light on a dark bridge or other working area can be blinding. It takes several minutes to readjust eyesight (Andersson et al., 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). It is important that persons realise the time it takes for them to establish their night vision. It is equally important that they learn to avoid blinding others who have already established their night vision. Red lights do not have a blinding effect and could be used instead, to avoid interrupting night vision, both in the ship and at the port.
In addition, in the shipboard environment, especially in confined spaces, there may be exposure to chemical agents in the air Containing or exhausting these laboratory fumes is an additional challenge especially when aboard ships (Iduk & Nitonye, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). What would be acceptable in a shore side lab may not be acceptable in a confined shipboard environment because it increases the possibility of having a fire or explosion that leads to more wreckages in the water, which would obstruct the way for other ships, possibly causing more collisions.
3.1.2. Equipment and Material
Defective, improperly installed and improperly used equipment is a major contributing cause of accidents. When research about accidents is being done, mechanics and technology are some of the top factors investigated (Iduk & Nitonye, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). This because all activities in a ship or at the dock depend on the proper working of these scientific equipment. Sudden failure due to overloading, or the use of defective material usually leads to injury. Many of these machinery are dangerous and come with warning signs, safeguards, and assigned safe working load. Ignoring these features puts the users at risk.
3.1.3. Training and Experience
A lack of skill, experience and knowledge concerning different rules and procedures for ships, both at the dock and on the waters, may lead to accidents (Oluseye & Ogunseye, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). During an initial exposure to a certain procedure, different dock, piece of equipment, new crewmembers or a change of rules at the port regarding vessel navigation, extra care and supervision is necessary so that everyone is involved in ensuring safe operation (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). By paying attention and learning the proper procedures, it is easy to eliminate the unnecessary accidents.
3.1.4. Communications
People react very fast when they hear, even when they do not comprehend the information in the way it was said. Poor communication can be a result of language barriers, background noise, unfamiliar terminology or failure to speak indistinctly leading to mistakes, misunderstandings, and ultimately, accidents (Rodgers, 2013). The persons in charge must ensure that they maintain good communication in order to effectively coordinate the efforts of a team. It is important to have the right information to understand the hazards a person can face and their possible consequences.
3.1.5. Accident Prevention
At sea, just as on land, many accidents that happen are preventable, it is only that the environment and the working conditions aboard the seagoing vessels pose additional hazards that are not found on the land (Rodgers, 2013). The responsibilities to prevent the accidents are distributed from the top down, from the shore establishment to the Master, and even to the individuals on-board. Safety awareness is an activity to be undertaken by all persons, thereby involving all persons in the avoidance of accidents. An effective accident prevention program is built on the tenets of supervisory and management commitment, training and self-awareness.
3.1.6. Improving the maritime traffic environment
To ensure smoother and safer movement of vessels and their safety in harbours and ports, dealing with the increasing size and speed of marine vessels, the increasingly diverse use of marine environments, and the growing complexity of maritime traffic, it is important to ensue that there be improved safety-related information such as maritime charts and sailing directions, and to improve the system to be able to provide this information through advanced methods such as the use of information technology (Rodgers, 2013).
Improving the traffic safety facilities
a. Improving the waterways that require regular maintenance and development
To improve the smoothness and safety of sea traffic, the authorities should carry out improvement work on the waterways that require regular maintenance and development, with consideration to coordination with the use of surrounding sea areas and fisheries, and conditions of vessel traffic control (Oluseye & Ogunseye, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). The improvement work may include setting up new waterways, expanding, deepening or maintaining the depth of the existing ones, improving waterway lines and eliminating flotsam. Particularly in major international waterways where large vessels and vessels carrying hazardous material navigate or many vessels navigate, the authorities should also strive to ensure safety of vessel navigation and the efficiency of marine transportation (Bambale, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). This is effectively done by combining tangible measures such as increasing the width or the depth of existing waterways, and intangible measures including review of technical requirements for high-speed vessels and the improvement of the port information system.
b. Improving ports and harbours
In response to recent developments where vessels are getting larger and faster, the government will seek to promote improvements to waterways, breakwaters and berths, with the aim of securing smooth and safe navigation of vessels and the safety of various activities in the harbours and ports (Ayua, Yagba & Odiase-Alegimenlen, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers). The authorities in charge should also create easily accessible refuge harbours all over the Nigerian coast for small vessels that could be seeking protection particularly during times of extreme weather conditions. In planning those harbours, the authorities should take into account the natural characteristics of the area and the shapes of the vessels that will use them (Force, Yiannopoulos & Davies, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online).. This helps to prevent more accidents at the dock when the ship’s gulf is damaged. While doing this, the authorities should also seek to improve the functions of harbours.
c. Improving the fishing harbours
Improving fishing harbours that serve as refuge ports for fishing boats as well as breakwaters designed with a protective effect against tsunamis, berths and facilities for keeping out rafts in order to improve safety.
d. Improving aids to navigation
To create a vessel traffic environment that combines the safety of vessel traffic and the efficiency of marine transportation, the authorities ought to develop next-navigation support system that takes advantage of the automatic identification system in the Nigerian coastal areas including the congested waters (Bambale, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). They also ought to advance the function of existing lighted beacons and lighted buoys through synchronised flashing to improve maritime information and communication systems (Ayua, Yagba & Odiase-Alegimenlen, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers). Lastly, to ensure the increased reliability of the aids to navigation, the government should renew aging facilities and equipment in a planned manner.
e. Improving earthquake resistance of ports and harbours
Although Nigeria is not located along major seismic zones of the world, over the years, there have been reports of earthquakes in different parts of the country. The first widely reported occurrence was in 1933, followed by others in 1939, 1964, 1984, 1990, 1994, 1997, 2000 and 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers. Based on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, the intensities of these events range from III to VI (Force, Yiannopoulos & Davies, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). Nigerian seismologists agree that Nigeria can no longer be considered an earthquake-free zone as previously believed following the series of earth tremors that have been experienced in different parts of the country in recent times. This trend is an indication that seismic activities within the country are increasing and there could be devastating consequences for the people of the nation (Roberts, 2007). This development requires that measures be put in place to mitigate the devastating effects when a major earthquake occurs in Nigeria. Experts are convinced about the possibility of an earthquake occurring somewhere on the country’s coast.
The following measures can be implemented to avert the consequences of the earthquakes.
i. Promoting earthquake-resistant design and R&D
By making use of revisions to earthquake-resistant, design standards made in view of research and investigations into the causes of the earthquakes occurring in different parts of the country, the government, through its disaster preparedness and management bodies should improve the setting method of the design seismic coefficient and tighten design standards for earthquake-resistant construction (Force, Yiannopoulos & Davies, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online).. This is done with the aim of securing the prescribed earthquake-resistance performance of structures used in harbours and ports. It should also seek to promote the use of various R&D to improve the earthquake-resistance of structures in harbours and ports.
ii. Improving the earthquake-resistance of wharves at major ports and harbours on the Nigerian shore.
In order to secure the transportation of emergency goods and evacuatees in the event of a major disaster, the government and its agencies should seek to upgrade wharves to make them more earthquake-resistant (Onyikepreye & Poku, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). The government should also aim to promote the improvements to international marine container terminals and at the domestic shipping terminals including intermodal terminals to make them earthquake-resistant enough to ensure certain functions as part of the transport network, even after a major disaster (Bambale, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). In addition to up~ Hire our professional writers now and experience the best assignment help online with our custom paper writing service. We ensure your essays and assignments are expertly researched, written and delivered on time. ~ Grading these facilities, when it is necessary to secure bases to support restoration and reconstruction of disaster-affected area, the government should then prepare the open spaces so that they can be used for evacuation and as storage facilities for emergency supplies and communication facilities as needed (Fagbohun, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer). This will form a part of the comprehensive emergency operation bases that is needed in the event of a disaster.
ii. Improving the earthquake resistance of existing port and harbour facilities
The government will assess the earthquake resistance of each port on the Nigerian coast, harbour facilities and port roads (Onyikepreye & Poku, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). Based on the findings of this study, the government will then work to upgrade the earthquake resistance of the bridges and other elevated parts of such facilities. The government should also implement measures to prevent liquefaction of facilities that may take a long time to restore after the occurrence of a disaster involving liquefaction.
f. Improving the earthquake resistance of fishing harbours
In coordination with various bodies responsible for creating disaster prevention plans, the government will promote improvements to fishing harbours that can serve as bases for local rescue activities ad those for distribution of fishery products in the event of disasters such as earthquakes, by working to create berths that can be used to rescue boats, earthquake-resistant wharves and transportation facilities (Haapasaari et al. 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). The government should also work to grasp the current earthquake-resistant structures of fishing harbours and examine the technical development of quakeproof engineering.
g. Promoting the security measures of the ports and harbours
So that security measures of international wharves are implemented properly, the government will reinforce the security measures in ports and harbours by confirming the status of implementation, carrying out human resource training, as well as promoting upgrade of the access control of ports and harbours and improvements on the security facilities of domestic passenger terminals (Onyikepreye & Poku, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online).
3.1.7. Improving traffic control and distribution of maritime traffic information
a. Promoting vessel traffic safety measures in congested seaways
To ensure the smooth movement of marine vessels in the face of the increasingly diverse use of seaways and the growing complexity of maritime traffic, the government will implement effective traffic controls, according to prevailing conditions, by promoting improvements to maritime traffic-related laws while proactively providing information and instructions required to ensure vessel traffic safety (Rayfuse, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). In addition, to ensure vessel traffic safety, particularly in congested seaways, the government should create maritime traffic that combine the safety and efficiency of maritime traffic by appropriately operating the maritime traffic information system that provides information on maritime traffic and controls vessel traffic in an integrated way, and improving and applying the next generation aids to navigation systems, and the means of control in major harbours and ports.
b. Improving the information service in coastal areas
To ensure the safety of vessel traffic in coastal areas with a high risk of maritime accidents, the government will improve the maritime information and communication system for providing information on the weather and hydrographic conditions and water safety information including navigation hazards on the internet (International Labor Office & Meeting, 2007). It will also develop the next-generation aids to navigation systems that can directly provide and give guidance or more detailed safety information in scripts to individual vessels.
c. Improving weather information
The government should accurately understand all weather conditions or natural phenomena, which could influence maritime transport safety, and make efforts to improve various qualities of marine meteorological information, such as setting up warnings of gales, storms, fog, tsunami, typhoon and forecast charts of typhoons and ocean waves, and to ensure appropriate timely announcements and prompt conveyance of such information (De, Gestri & Venturini, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). Futhermore, facilities for observing weather conditions should be considered necessary, and the maintenance or improvement of them promoted. At the same time, the government should promote information sharing with disaster prevention organizations, and strengthen IT-utilised observation and monitoring systems (Force, Yiannopoulos & Davies, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online).. Improvement of the local people’s knowledge about meteorological phenomena should also be promoted by way of publicity activities such as seminars, with the aim of making, more effective use of this kind of information. In addition to all these measures, the government ought to promote the development of an improved optimum routing information system that makes vessels more intelligent and enables the vessel operators to select optimum travel routes.
d. Improvement of marine charts, sailing directions and hydrographic reports
In order to keep pace with the advances in the development of harbours, ports and waterways, and the increasing popularity of marine interaction, responsible government agencies should use the new technology available such as an aircraft with on-board sounding equipment to improve hydrographic surveys and monitoring (Beckman, 2013). This will make the monitoring process more effective and rationalise marine charts and sailing directions through measures such as producing them in electronic form (Rayfuse, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Especially for the Nigerian coastal areas where a high proportion of marine accidents occur for both pleasure boats and commercial vessels, the government should improve the information availability and distribution on those waters (De, Gestri & Venturini, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). In regards to this, there should be a careful review of publications that currently provide such information, and effort to revise their contents from time to time, to make them more appropriate to the times, and to technological development.
In addition, with an increase in the number of foreign crews, a sales channel should be established so that Nigerian navigation charts can be easily obtain, and to ensure that the waters continue to remain safe (International Labor Office & Meeting, 2007). In regard to information on the safety of marine transport, the government should also promote the use of the internet for waterway reports that provide information necessary for the updating of charts and the safety of vessel traffic.
Improving passenger ship terminals to promote the safety of passengers
To ensure the safety of users in harbours and ports, there is a need to consider a variety of specific factors, such as the vibration of floating piers and changes in the inclination of paths due to differences in sea levels (Rayfuse, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). In the light of this, the government should promote the construction of barrier free facilities, to include the elimination of steps, and instead, the installation of guide blocks that will make navigation easier for the passengers (Force, Yiannopoulos & Davies, 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). This will ensure that all people, including the disabled and the elderly, will be able to safely and comfortably make use of passenger vessels, passenger terminals and other facilities in the shipping industry.
3.1.8. Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment and Supervisory Commitment
This includes budgeting time and funds for safety-related activities and equipment, the willingness to reject unsafe practices, which could at times, especially under pressure, seem expedient, and positive reaction when risks and safer ways to do things are established (Ayua, Yagba & Odiase-Alegimenlen, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers).
3.1.9. Self-awareness
Safety aspects of every operation ought to be considered at all times, and by all persons. All persons must be aware of the importance of staying safe.
3.1.10. Removing old vessels from the waterways
Old vessels, just like old cars or machinery, are prone to mechanical failures and other problems that when happening on-board, could lead to accidents (Rodgers, 2013). The government of India has taken up this solution and issued a notification imposing restrictions on ships that are more than 25 years old in a bid to reduce the number of marine accidents consequently, the implications that the accidents have on the marine environment (Andersson et al., 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). This was said in a meeting dubbed ‘toward sustainable shipping’ that was organised by the Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers, and the Union Minister of Shipping who held the seminar based on the experience they had had when handling marine accidents in the recent past. They had found that the age of the ship plays a critical role (International Labor Office & Meeting, 2007). As a result, the government of India has put in place a legal framework to handle shipping accidents by acceding to two international conventions, the Wreck Removal Convention and the Protocol to the Convention on Limited Liability for Maritime Claims. The Minister said that these initiatives would provide a strong legal framework to claim compensation in case of oil spillage, shipwrecks and other accidents.

CHAPTER FOUR: LEGAL PRACTICES TO REDUCE THE RISK ASSOCIATED WITH ACCIDENTS AND COLLISIONS
4.1. Introduction
History shows that improvements to international marine safety are almost exclusively driven by maritime disasters. This kind of change is reactive, slow and influenced by industry-driven agendas. For example, after the sinking of the Titanic in 1912, maritime nations gathered in London and held the first international conference on the safety of life at sea, leading to the draft of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). SOLAS would ensure that all signatory states complied with minimum safety standards in terms of equipment, construction and ship operation.
There is also the flag state jurisdiction. According to this law, the obligation for flag states to adopt and enforce law and regulations for the control and reduction of pollution for the marine environment, which is, indicated in articles 211(2) and 217 of the UNCLOS respectively. According to article 211(2), states must adopt laws and regulations for the prevention, reduction and control of pollution in the marine environment, especially for countries where flags are used for identification (Rayfuse, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). These laws and regulations have at least the same effect as that of generally accepted international rules and standards. Article 217 addresses the enforcement jurisdiction of flag states of international rules and standards established through the competent international organization, the IMO, and their laws and regulations that are adopted in accordance with UNCLOS for the prevention, reduction and control of pollution of the marine environment from vessels flying their flag or of their registry (Haapasaari et al. 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Such enforcement must take place irrespective of where the violation occurs.
4.2. Investigation of violations
Article 217(4) sets out the obligation of the flag state to provide for immediate investigation and where appropriate, institute proceedings in respect of the alleged violation by its ships of the rules and standards established through the IMO, irrespective of where the violation has occurred or where the pollution caused by the violation has been spotted or has occurred (International Labor Office & Meeting, 2007). In the same way, article 4 of MARPOL established the obligation of the flag state to institute proceedings as soon as possible with respect to any violation of the requirements of that Convention wherever it occurs, in accordance with its law.
Under article 271(5), the flag state conducting an investigation of the violation may request assistance from other states, which in turn must endeavor to meet appropriate requests (Rodgers, 2013). If the authorities are satisfied that there is sufficient evidence available to enable proceedings to be brought up with respect to the alleged violation, flag states must institute proceeding without delay in accordance to the established laws.
4.3. Wreck Removal
The responsibility for removal of any ship that becomes wrecked lies on its owners according to the law. Relevant provisions for this include Sections 360-385 and 398 of MSA and the Merchant Shipping Regulations of 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer (Haapasaari et al. 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). Furthermore, these provisions authorize the receiver off the wreck to take possession, raise, remove or destroy the whole or any part of the vessel. The MSA also makes it an offence for any person other than the receiver to carry out the above without the permission of the Receiver of Wrecks (Andersson et al., 2016: 2024 – Do my homework – Help write my assignment online). Also, in the manner in which the Receiver of Wrecks sees fit, he may sell any part so raised or removed and any property recovered in the exercise of his powers.
Nigeria has signed the Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of wrecks 2007. However, the Nairobi Convention does not have the force of law in Nigeria, which means that it is yet to be ratified and enacted as a law in the National Assembly as required by Section 12 of the Constitution.
Section 44(1) of the NIMASA Act 2007 empowers NIMASA with the function of providing search and rescue services to control and prevent marine pollution and to receive and remove wrecks.
Authorities’ powers of Investigation/ Casualty response in the event of a collision, grounding or other casualty
NIMASA has vast powers in relation to the promotion of maritime safety and security protection of the maritime environment (International Labor Office & Meeting, 2007). The NIMASA Act thereto empowers NIMASA to cause an investigation into any offence which it has reason to believe has been committed, or is about to be committed with respect to the stipulations of the NIMASA Act. The director-general of NIMASA also as the power to set up a Marine Casualty Investigation Committee on any marine incident with the intention of identifying the circumstances, reasons and consequences of a marine casualty (Rayfuse, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). He is also empowered to identify the persons at fault in a marine casualty and to develop measures for the prevention of marine casualties on the basis of the experience gained in the course of investigation (Rayfuse, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service).
The National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) Act of 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers also grants NOSDRA a wide array of powers in relation to the surveillance and enforcement of all environmental legislation and the response, detection and clean up the best practical extent of the impacted site of the oil spills in the Nigerian Petroleum sector (Ayua, Yagba & Odiase-Alegimenlen, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers).
The Nigerian Ports Authority, in pursuant of the NPA Act, is responsible for the approaches to all ports and the territorial waters of Nigeria and this includes the control of pollution arising from oil or any other substance from shops using the port limits or their approaches.

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
5.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the results of the findings of the study done by analysing the responses from 200 10-question multiple-choice questionnaires answered by persons from various job groups working at Port Harcourt and Calabar ports on the Nigerian coast and 15 officials from NIMASA, 15 from Nigerian Ports Authority and the Maritime Board. 150 questionnaires were answered by employees involved in different activities in the shipping industry.
5.2. Discussion
Individual characteristics related to their job categories, the length of experience were also analysed because they count in determining the reliability and validity of the responses. The questionnaire sought to determine the frequency of marine accidents and collisions on the Nigerian coast according to the memory of the respondents.
The questionnaires also sought to gauge the understanding of the respondents on the factors that cause oil spillage on the marine environment, factors they thought contributed most to the pollution, the effects of the pollution and their suggestion on ways to curb oil spillage on the Nigerian coast (Haapasaari et al. 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service).
The study also sought to determine from the respondents the best practices to prevent major marine accident hazards (International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay). Lastly, the study sought to evaluate the legal practices and the roles of the regulatory authorities in their quest to reduce the risk associated with coastal states of Nigeria. This was meant to ensure that international shipping was regulated and that life for those working on the sea, particularly those who go for long voyages was protected.
It helped that the respondents were drawn from two different ports because it made the information got from them more generalizable and applicable even to other Nigerian ports. However, all this was done having sought permission from relevant authorities, particularly the Nigerian Ports Authority.
In-depth research of the information contained in the studies conducted before had already established the main problems that result from pollution in the marine environment, particularly oil spillage (Nigeria & Mbanefo, 2013). This provided a starting point and questions raised during the in-depth study became part of the questionnaire.
The research produced different causes of the accidents documented and this list became the preliminary causes of the accidents. In one of the accidents, the reasons for collision listed include inadequate warning system, inspections were not carried out routinely, inadequate competency of the staff, collective neglect of safety by numerous regulatory and governing bodies, and the failure to learn lessons.
In another accident, inadequate maintenance, operators being misled by unclear control panel indicators and layout, failure to correctly interpret the plant status, inadequate training of the operators at the port and on-board on proper emergency response (Nigeria & Mbanefo, 2013).
In the third accident, failure to learn from the lessons of the past, inadequate training of the people on-board and on the beach, known defects in the indicator and the safety systems on the ships and the dock went without improval or redesign (Nigeria & Mbanefo, 2013).
In the fourth accident, the report indicated that some of the causes had been inadequate maintenance that led to critical valves being left closed leading to capsizing due to explosion, and unclear control panel indicators and layout misled operators of the ship (Nigeria & Mbanefo, 2013). Other reasons include failure to interpret correctly the warning signs at the port especially at night, inadequate training of operators on emergency responses that could allow them to respond to the situation promptly.
5.3. Findings from the Questionnaires
Of the 200 questionnaires issued, only 180 were usable. Data was collected from them and analysed. This section, therefore, presents a report of the primary data drawn from the study through the questionnaires administered to a number of stakeholders in the maritime industry, either working on the ground or in government offices with the responsibility of making policies and regulating the laws made. To reduce the bulkiness of the data, the questionnaire only considered 15 questions that were considered most important and would contribute to the information required, information that is considered relevant to the problems, objectives and hypothesis of this dissertation.
5.3.1. Distribution of the respondent’s age
Age Frequency Percentage
25 years or less 50 27.78%
26-35 years 45 25%
36-45 years 55 30.56%
46 years and above 30 16.67%
Total 180 100%
Table 1: Table showing age distribution of the respondents
From the table above, 50 individuals from the representative sample, 27.78% of the respondents, were aged 25 years or less, 45 of the respondents, 25% of the population, were aged between 26 and 35 years while 55 persons were aged between 36 and 45 years, which accounted for 30.56% of the respondents. Persons aged 46 years and above were 30, representing 16.67%. The statistics derived show that all respondents had enough experience, training and competency to give informative answers to the questions asked in the questionnaire.
5.3.2. Work Experience of the respondents
Length of experience Frequency Percentage
5 years or less 60 33.33%
6-10 years 40 22.22%
11-20 years 35 19.44%
21 years and above 45 25%
Total 180 100%
Table 3: Table showing the distribution of the respondents’ working experiences
From the table above, the respondents had been on the job for a while seeing that majority of them had been on the job for more than 5 years. 40 of them, 22.22% of the respondents have worked for 6 to 10 years, 35 of them, 19.44% have worked for between 11 and 20 years while 45 of them, 25% have worked for more than 21 years. The respondents had sufficient experience needed to add information unto this study.

Section 2: Impact of collisions and accidents on the Nigerian Marine environment
In this second part of the questionnaire, the respondents were requested to give answers to impersonal questions, those related to accidents and collisions on the Nigerian coast and how to prevent them and control the pollution they cause.
5.3.3. Contribution of accidents and collisions to the deterioration of the marine environment
Opinion Frequency Percentage
Strongly Agree 100 55.56%
Agree 35 19.44%
Disagree 30 16.67%
Strongly Disagree 15 8.33%
Total 180 100%
Table 5: Table showing opinions expressed on whether collisions and accidents are some of the top factors causing marine environmental degradation on the Nigerian Coast
The responses in this questioned were inclined towards the positive. 100 respondents, 55.56% of the population sample strongly agreed that accidents were a major contribution towards the degradation of the Nigerian coast. 35 respondents agreed, representing 19.44% of the sample, 30 respondents disagreed, while 15 respondents strongly disagreed.
Seeing that majority of the respondents felt that collisions caused the most harm to the environment, the government should seek to reduce the factors that increase the probability of accidents (Virzo, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service). After this, the government can come up with measures to counter the effects that have already occurred such as through collecting debris and wreckage, removing oil spilled and other similar activities intended to reverse the effects of collisions.
5.3.4. Political interference paralyses regulations used to ensure safety of the marine environment in Nigeria
Opinion Frequency Percentage
Strongly Agree 100 55.56%
Agree 70 38.89%
Disagree 10 5.56%
Strongly Disagree 0 0%
Total 180 100%
Table 8: Table showing respondents’ opinion on whether political influence affects the implementation of regulations set to promote safety in the marine environment
100 respondents, representing 55.56% of the population strongly agreed with the claim, 70 respondents agreed, representing 38.89% of the population sample while 10 respondents, representing 5.56% of the population disagreed. Not one of the respondents strongly agreed. In this question too, the opinions were highly divided seeing that only 10 respondents from the entire sample gave a negative response.
From the responses, it would seem that political influence is a significant hindrance to the implementation of rules and regulations in Nigeria. It is important to note that most issues concerning the maritime industry in Nigeria are under the leadership of a minister, who is a politician and not an expert in matters marine transportation.
5.3.5. State of disaster preparedness for collisions and accidents on the Nigerian coast
Opinion Frequency Percentage
Strongly Agree 10 5.56%
Agree 24 13.33%
Disagree 76 42.22%
Strongly Disagree 70 38.89%
Total 180 100%
Table 9: Table showing responses given in regard to the disaster preparedness of the country for the issues that come up after accidents and collisions.
In this question, respondents were asked to indicate whether the country is well prepared for disasters that could arise from accidents and collisions. 10 respondents strongly agreed that the country was sufficiently prepared to handle disasters, representing 5.56% of the population sample. 24 respondents agreed, representing 13.33%, 76 respondents disagreed, representing 42.22% of the population sample while 70 respondents, 38.89% of the population sample strongly disagreed. From the responses, which were mostly inclined to the negative, the country’s disaster preparedness is wanting. It is not sufficient to handle the issues that arise after collisions or accidents, which could significantly control the damage that arises from these collisions.
5.3.6. Poor national economy as the contributing factor towards the lack of enforcement of regulations that are meant to combat marine degradation in Nigeria
Opinion Frequency Percentage
Strongly Agree 88 48.89%
Agree 34 18.89%
Disagree 34 18.89%
Strongly Disagree 24 13.33%
Total 180 100%
Table 10: Table showing respondents’ opinion on the contribution of a poor economy towards the failure to enforce regulations meant to prevent marine degradation in Nigeria
In this question, 88 respondents, representing 48.89% of the sample population strongly agreed, 34 respondents, representing 18.89% of the population sample agreed, a similar number disagreed while 24 respondents strongly disagreed, representing 13.33% of the population. From the responses given, a majority feel that the economic status of the country affects the implementation of rules and regulations governing the marine environment. This can be seen from the fact that government agencies and other bodies entrusted with these roles and duties often face difficulties and are unable to work due to a shortage of finances. Besides the nation, the low economic status also affects ship owners because when financially strained, they are not able to maintain their ships properly through frequent servicing or to purchase new vessels when the old ones are dilapidating.
5.3.7. Most prevalent causes of collisions and accidents on the Nigerian coast
In this question, respondents were asked to list three most prevalent causes of collisions and accidents on the country’ coast. The causes mentioned included:
• Poor communication
• Fatigue brought by different elements of the marine environment
• Carelessness of the shipping crew and of persons working at the port
• Inadequate training and education of employees
• Lack of resources to implement necessary changes

5.3.8. Suggestions on measures that can be applied to reduce or prevent accidents on Nigerian waters
Respondents were requested to give suggestions on measures they thought would reduce and prevent accidents and collisions on Nigerian waters. Some of the measures listed include:
• Effective operations management of vessels through regular servicing
• Strengthening the supervision of passenger ship operators
• Improving the maritime accident-cause investigation system
• Improving vessel safety standards
• Enhanced vessel inspection
• Enhancing safety measures for small vessels
• Using information from previous accidents to prevent reoccurrence
• Disseminating knowledge on maritime safety
• Promoting vessel traffic safety measures in congested ports
• Proper training of personnel working in this industry

5.4. Concluding Remarks
Marine oil tanker accidents in Nigeria had over the years been some of the largest contributors of degradation of the Nigerian coastal environment, hence the need to examine and investigate into the cause of these accidents together with the practices and problems associated with them in Nigeria. The first chapter presented an overview of the topic, citing why the issue has become a problem that must be investigated. It gave an introduction of the topic including the focus of the study, the significance of the study, objectives of the researcher and a brief review of the impact that the marine accidents have on the marine environment. In the second chapter the study reviewed literature on the causes and the impact of marine vessel accidents and collision on the Nigerian coastal environment and the need for improvement in regard to preservation of the natural environment.
Chapter three discusses practices that can be taken up to prevent major marine accident hazards. It begins by examining different kinds of accident-causing factors. One of the factors is the shipboard environment whose risk is increased by dangerous factors such as motion, vibration, noise, temperature extremes, rotating machinery and sometimes, the tension at sea is more than that which is encountered ashore. Accidents also rise from the use of faulty equipment and material. Training and experience of employees, particularly those working on the ground, the ship and the port, when it is not done effectively could lead to mistakes that have dire consequences. Other times, poor communication, or lack of it, leads to misunderstanding of information or persons acting on their own without direction and supervision. It has been noted that people tend to act very fast after hearing, and if they heard wrongly, this is likely to lead to mistakes and accidents. Poor communication can be a result of language barriers, background noise, unfamiliar terminology or failure to speak indistinctly leading to mistakes, misunderstandings, and ultimately, accidents.
This chapter also discussed way to prevent accidents mainly through improving the maritime traffic environment. This can be done by improving the traffic safety facilities, improving the waterways that require regular maintenance and development, improving ports and harbours and improving the fishing harbours. It would also help to make improvement to the aids of navigation so that they are more visible and easily understood, and to enhance the earthquake resistance of ports and harbours. This can be done by enhancing the earthquake-resistant design and R&D of the coast and the ports and improving the earthquake-resistance of wharves at major ports and harbours on the Nigerian shore. Fishing harbours should also be strengthened to reduce their ability to resist tremors and earthquakes because wreckages and deaths in this industry.
Chapter five consists basically of the methodology used to derive the primary and secondary data needed in this study which includes the methods and techniques used in the collection of data for the research. This study employed a multi-method approach by taking up both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection to produce both primary and secondary data. Data was analysed using excel by finding the percentages and then presented in tables.
Chapter six deals with the presentation of the data collected and the statistical analysis of variables. Data would also be subjected to hypothetical testing and valid results and their interpretations would be presented. This last chapter presents the conclusion and the recommendations.

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION
6.1. Introduction
This chapter presents an analysis of thoughts and ideas derived from the literature reviewed and from the data collected in the field, and analysed in the discussions chapter. The study was meant to look into the impacts of collisions and accidents on the Nigerian marine environment. The study took up a multi-method approach of investigating the issue by seeking information from both the use of questionnaires and in-depth literature analysis. The objectives of this study were to identify marine accident or collisions causing pollution on the Nigerian coast, to review the impact of oil spill in marine environment and to analyse best practices to prevent major marine accident hazards. In addition, the researcher sought to evaluate the legal practices to further reduce the risk associated with coastal states and its ability to regulate international shipping purposes and programs.

6.2. Main Conclusion
I achieved my objective of determining the frequency and number of collisions and accidents on the Nigerian coast and the pollution effect they have on the coast. I found that the Nigerian coastal environment has been suffering untold degradation mainly because of human activities on the waters or at the port and because of vessel accidents and collisions that happen at sea. The larger number of these accidents, approximately eighty per cent of them accidents occurs because of human error while the remaining twenty per cent is caused by equipment or technical failure. It is even more worrying that these accidents continue to increase despite the measures put in place to keep them from happening. Other causes for the accidents include overloading, abandoned wrecks on navigation channels, excessive speeding, poor attention to the condition of the weather, inadequate navigational aids and incompetence.
Investigations also found other accident causes to be poor pilotage services, absence of a system to administer, monitor and investigate mishaps, lack of an adequate lighting at the ports, failure to sound signals, inappropriate ship speed, lights or shapes that are off and inappropriate directions and supervision
It was also clear that besides the loss of life, wreckage of capital goods and other accident beliefs, collisions lead to oil spills that cause untold pollution on the marine environment.
I was also able to investigate the effects of oil spillage on the Nigerian coast. Oil can impact an environment, mainly the plants and animals involved, through different mechanisms. They include physical smothering that affects physiological functions, chemical toxicity that leads to lethal and sub-lethal effects, impairing cellular functions and causes ecological changes primarily leading to the loss of key organisms from a community and the takeover of habitats by opportunistic. Oil spillage may cause indirect effects such as the loss of shelter or habitat and consequently, elimination of ecologically important species.
I also sought to analyse best practices to prevent major marine accident hazards. I found that accidents can be reduced by proper maintenance of equipment and material, proper communication, improving the maritime traffic environment and improving the waterways that require regular maintenance and development. Improving the traffic safety facilities, improving the face and quality of ports and harbours, improving the fishing harbours and also improving aids to navigation could also significantly lower the accident rate. Lastly, other strategies like improving earthquake resistance of ports and harbours, promoting the security measures of the ports and harbours, removing old vessels from the waterways improving traffic control and distribution of maritime traffic information and promoting vessel traffic safety measures in congested seaways could reduce the number of accidents.

6.3. Recommendations
In view of the problems discussed, findings expressed and the conclusions drawn from this research work, the following recommendations are made to eliminate accidents and collisions, thereby reducing oil spills that cause a lot of harm to the animals and plants on the coast or living in the water, hence enhancing the protection of the environmental balance.
One of the most important strategies to take up to reduce accidents and collisions on the Nigerian marine environment is to promote effective operations management of vessels. This can be done through the following strategies:
Strengthening the supervision of passenger ship operators. The government, through its agencies should implement audits of passenger ship operators and domestic carriers, focusing on their observation of operation management rules. At the same time, to make audits more effective, the government should also seek to improve from the audit methods its uses currently.
Supervising operation management for sea taxis and other vessels. To further improve the safety of passenger transport on the coast, the government should supervise and guide ocean going ship companies and domestic passenger transport companies operating vessels with passenger capacities of up to 12 persons such as sea taxis, to ensure that they implement safety measures such as the formulation of operation management rules.
Implementing accident recurrence prevention measures thoroughly. In case it is found that the basic cause of an accident that involves a passenger vessel lies in the company’s operations management system, the government should establish an investigation commission with the participation of external experts, entrust the commission with formulation of drastic measures to prevent recurrence of the accident and instruct the company on how to vigorously and continually implement these measures. In addition, whenever the need arises, depending on the nature of the accident, and the frequency of occurrence, the government should issue caution to passenger ship companies and passengers themselves through relevant travel agencies and the media in order to raise awareness about accident prevention.
Promoting measures to prevent accidents involving seamen
To help prevent maritime accidents brought by poor labour standards on ships thereby improving the safety and health management of persons on-board, the government should steadily implement the basic disaster prevention strategies for seafarers which are formulated according to the Law for Promotion of Prevention of Seafarers’ Disaster. The government can achieve this by promoting disaster prevention measures that take into consideration the analysis on the causes of accidents, through the activities of the Association of Promoting Safety and Sanitation for Seafarers and through auditing and guidance by supervisors for safety management and seafarers’ labour inspection.
Improving the maritime accident-cause investigation system. In order to eliminate maritime accidents, the authorities should strive to get speedy and accurate investigations of the causes, while also enhancing the system to allow carrying out in-depth scientific investigations. In addition, in order to establish an international cooperative system for maritime accident investigation at an early date, the government should also ensure that it responds actively to the inquest of bodies such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
Improving vessel safety standards. In order to improve the safety of vessels, the Nigerian authorities should seek to investigate improvements to safety standards that they can take up and enforce on vessel construction activities and facilities. While keeping pace with these improvements, the country should also come up with its own standards and inspection systems that would sufficiently be used to meet the challenges that come up in the industry as maritime transport diversifies. In particular, the government should consider examining the new safety standards provided by the IMO such as the goal-based new ship construction standards, the next generation lifesaving system and the global system on distress and safety at sea. At the same time, the government should promote performance standardization that enables a wide variety of rule compliance methods developed with the ingenuity of the operators to be approved, to promote technological innovation and to reduce the cost of compliance.
The Federal Government should establish a full body charged with the responsibility of enforcing the already existing laws and regulations that are meant to help in the protection of the Nigerian coastal environment. Important laws that need fast implementation include the oil in Nigerian waters act of 1968, criminal code of Nigeria and the Federal environment protection decree number 58. Better yet, instead of coming up with a new enforcement agency, the country should empower the already existing agencies that are tasked with these responsibilities so that they are able to effectively implement these laws.
The government should come up with laws that have penalties that are more stringent for violators of the pollution act. In most accidents reported, the human factor stood out as one of the top causes of the accident. If the people operating vessels on the Nigerian waters and those working on the ports became aware of the consequences of their actions, they are likely to be more careful and safety conscious during the cause of their operations.
Based on the fact that it takes money, time and energy to fight the menace of pollution, the federal government and the local authorities should put together the necessary resources to ensure adequacy in the protection of the marine environment.
The Nigerian government should establish a central coordinating unit whose responsibility will be to protect against pollution as a whole, so that no aspect of the environment is left without protection or control. In light of this, the organization should set up a campaign to create awareness among seafarers and others working in the marine environment with the aim of enlightening and sensitizing them on their responsibility in the protection of the environment.
NIMASA, NPA and the Maritime Board, in conjunction with ship owners of Nigeria should ensure that retraining seminars and workshops are organized for ship owners and the shore based management team to facilitate success in creating awareness about the vital role they play in general safety of the vessels and the marine environment.

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Appendix
Questionnaire
Section 1
1. Please indicate your gender
( ) Male
( ) Female
2. Please indicate your age by ticking on the age bracket
( ) 25 years or less
( ) 26-35 years
( ) 36-45 years
( ) 46 years and above
3. Please indicate your working experience
( ) 5 years or less
( ) 6-10 years
( ) 11-15 years
( ) 21 years and above
4. Please indicate your qualifications
( ) B.Sc. / HND and above
( ) OND, NCE, and equivalent
( ) Others (Professional Certificates, University Diploma, High School, etc.)

Section 2
5. Accidents and collisions on the Nigerian coast have caused significant deterioration of the marine environment
( ) Strongly Agree
( ) Agree
( ) Disagree
( ) Strongly Disagree
6. The standards of the development and application of safety practices in the Nigerian maritime industry have been lowered
( ) Strongly Agree
( ) Agree
( ) Disagree
( ) Strongly Disagree
7. The government is doing the best it can to ensure the goals and objectives meant to improve maritime safety are achieved.
( ) Strongly Agree
( ) Agree
( ) Disagree
( ) Strongly Disagree
8. Political involvement and interference is source of difficulties in the implementation of the laws and regulations surrounding safety in the marine environment.
( ) Strongly Agree
( ) Agree
( ) Disagree
( ) Strongly Disagree
9. The current disaster preparedness for accidents and collisions that happen on the Nigerian coast is relatively low.
( ) Strongly Agree
( ) Agree
( ) Disagree
( ) Strongly Disagree
10. A poor national economy is a contributing factor to the lack of enforcement of regulations meant to combat environmental degradation in Nigeria
( ) Strongly Agree
( ) Agree
( ) Disagree
( ) Strongly Disagree
11. In your opinion, what are the top three causes of collisions and accidents on the Nigerian coast?
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12.Please suggest three measures that can be applied to reduce or prevent accidents on Nigerian waters
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