Posted: March 13th, 2024

Major Social Reforms: Julian Calendar

Major Social Reforms: Julian Calendar
1. Introduction
Ancient Romans originally used a calendar that was based on the cycles of the moon, and so it was much shorter than the solar year. As a solution to the problem, a man named Julius Caesar started a calendar reform which resulted in the creation of the Julian Calendar. The Julian Calendar represented a substantial social reform that impacted many aspects of Roman life and the Roman state. For example, the length of the months was standardized, the calendar year was fixed at 365 days, and the concept of a “leap year” was introduced. However, the importance of the Julian Calendar to society was not limited to its immediate social impacts. Its use over a long period of history, combined with the Romans’ well-documented dating practices, has led to the calendar’s adoption as a key historical reference point in the field of archaeology and in the study of Roman culture. The Julian Calendar was subsequently used into the 7th century, and its historical significance remains of interest until the present day. This is partly because the Julian Calendar was used as the basis for the Gregorian Calendar – the modern system that we use today, and partly because the Gregorian Calendar corrected an error in time, leading to many “lost” days. Through this research paper, the aim is to provide a comprehensive account of the historical and social basis for the implementation of the Julian Calendar. The importance of aligning it with the solar year will also be discussed, alongside noting criticisms and its influence over time. This research paper constitutes a substantial piece of historical writing with particular sections that require specific historical explanation and findings of archaeological discoveries. It is aimed that the paper will provide valuable insights for experts and researchers in the field of history and Roman archaeology, and also those taking their first steps into the study of the ancient world. The first chapter will be focused on the background to the Julian Calendar by exploring the difficulties of the primitive Roman “lunisolar” calendar and the events leading up to the historical social reform proposed by Julius Caesar. This will be followed by consideration into the motives behind the reform, the methods adopted for its introduction into Roman society, and an overview of the immediate changes that the Julian Calendar brought. Next, the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian Calendar will be historiographically examined, and it will be argued by considering opinions from different historians. This will set out the stage for the final chapter, in which the lasting legacy of the Julian Calendar in modern society will be explored. By looking into practices in different European countries, such as the critical role of the Julian Calendar in Greece, and the customs associated with New Year’s Day, the wider influence of the Julian Calendar will be discussed. Additionally, an account of the calendar’s use in the Eastern Orthodox Church will be provided, and the claims that the Julian Calendar still remains in use will be critically evaluated. This will serve to demonstrate the importance of understanding differing interpretations in historical work and how this can shape the analysis and conclusion of the research.
1.1. Background of the Julian Calendar
The Roman calendar, adopted in 45 BCE, was based on the lunar calendar that had ten months in a year. However, it soon became out of step with the seasons because the correct year length is actually 365 and a quarter days. Hence, the Roman consul, Julius Caesar, who was advised by the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, decided to reform the Roman calendar and introduced the Julian calendar which is mainly sun-based. He added 90 extra days to the year 46 BCE so that the winter would be 90 days long, and the new year would start on 1st January. Then, the Julian calendar was finally implemented in 45 BCE and it was used in Europe continuously for more than 16 centuries until modified by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, and shifted 11 days to become the now widely used Gregorian calendar. The Julian calendar is so useful not only because it is more accurate and scientific compared to the Roman calendar, but also it symbolizes the contemporary political influences in the ancient world, as it was made possible by the immense power and wealth of Julius Caesar. However, the integration was never easy because some people still believed in the superstitious practice of the Roman calendar, and this new calendar was different from what they had been used to for a long period of time. This has led to confusions and bitter rivalry as it further deepened the difference between upper and lower class of people, as the former would be more acceptable to such significant calendar reform due to their better education, while the vast majority of ordinary citizens would have preferred tradition which they were familiar with.
1.2. Purpose of the Research Paper
The purpose of this research paper is to provide an introduction to the Julian Calendar, one of the major social reforms in history. This includes taking a look at the background from which the Julian Calendar was introduced, the impact of this new calendar towards society and culture as well as the controversies and process of reforms that the Julian Calendar had faced over centuries. Through investigating the legacy and influence of the Julian Calendar, my aim is to explore and enhance our understanding of the historical significance of such a social reform. It would also provide context when deciding on why the Julian Calendar is still used in modern days, especially in certain traditions and religious practices. This research can greatly benefit history students and teachers. With an insight into what the Julian Calendar actually is and why it was introduced, it would help history students to understand and appreciate the impact of the Julian Calendar both in the past and present. They would also be able to comprehend why certain events in history are dated according to the Julian Calendar and to draw comparisons with other calendar systems. In addition, discussing the Julian Calendar in the pastoral and academic needs of Orthodox liturgical studies and the academic merits of maintaining the liturgical status quo today, this would help to provide information for scholars and experts in Liturgical Studies, especially in making decisions where people find it acceptable to remain with the Julian Calendar.
2. Historical Significance of the Julian Calendar
From the founding of Rome to the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453, the Julian calendar had been used uniformly across the Roman world, and it continued to be the standard in the Eastern Roman Empire. When the proposal for calendar reform was put forward by the leading astronomer, Ptolemy, the proposal to bring the calendar into line with the astronomical year, which was slightly less than 365.25 days, was initially accepted but later rejected. The calendar in use today, called the Gregorian calendar, was not introduced until 1582. It had lost 10 days by this time, so that the world was brought into line with the astronomical year by losing these 10 days. This transition was difficult, though, and in England and Ireland – which did not adopt the new calendar until 1752 – there was considerable opposition, with people demanding “Give us back our 11 days!” The choice of the names of the days and months and the assignment of the number of days to each month were basically the same as the “modern” calendar. Also, the Julian year started on 25th March, but in general – throughout the Middle Ages – this was understood to be the same as 1st January. It wasn’t until 1752 that the start of the year was changed to 1st January. The change was met with some rather interesting problems. For example, since “old” Christmas Day was the 5th January and the Epiphany was the 6th January, people felt that they were being cheated out of 11 days. Also, the year 1751 in England began on 25th March and ended on 31st December, giving a year of only 282 days! It was also necessary to introduce a new form of double-dating because the year 1752 started on 1st January but ended in March. Therefore, it was necessary to write dates as, for example, 19th February 1750/51. Nowadays, people tend to write this date as 19th February 1751 to avoid confusion.
2.1. Implementation and Adoption of the Julian Calendar
The Gregorian calendar therefore was seen as not just a scientific development, but as a political and religious statement of compliance to a more standardized European-wide calendar system; yet another demonstration of the immense and far-reaching powers of the church during this period of history.
In 1582, this was superseded in Italy and France by the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. The change was not adopted in Britain and its overseas possessions (including what would later become the United States) until 1752. It is a testament to the soundness and precision of the Julian calendar, that a replacement was seen as necessary only at a time when the scientific powers of the day had shown that the errors in the Julian calendar were beginning to detract from the ordered analysis of historical and future astronomical occurrences, which knowledge was vital to, for example, the determination of the correct date of Easter.
This drift was corrected by Augustus, who ordered the twelve intercalary days of the year 8 BC to be placed in a so-called ‘leap year’. It is recorded that this year consisted of 15 months, as the additional days were divided between February and the introduction of the new month of ‘Sextillis’. This year was subsequently termed the ‘last year of confusion’, as the Julian calendar re-established a permanent solution to seasonal phase errors with a leap year of 366 days every four years. This calendar remained in universal use in the western world for the following sixteen centuries.
In less than a century of its introduction, the Julian calendar had become widely accepted and its use spread rapidly. It was utilized in the administration of law, the use of public records and it even regulated the system for raising and arranging armies – an essential requirement for a highly militaristic society like Rome. Roughly every 128 years, it gained a full day against the solar year, so that the occurrence of the vernal equinox on 25 March shifted to 11 March on the Julian calendar as a consequence of the inbuilt errors.
The Roman months were organized into groupings defined by the position of the first day in relation to the Kalends, Nones and Ides. The Roman method of counting years – from the founding of Rome, onwards was not compatible with the calendar, and even today we refer to events in past history as having occurred either in ‘BC’ or ‘AD’. This is because the Julian calendar fell into line with the twelve month, three hundred and sixty-five day structure of the Egyptian calendar that had been in place since the pharaoh Ptolemy V established it in 200 BC.
The transition to the Julian calendar was completed in 45 BC by Julius Caesar, as part of a larger reform. The year in which this reform was implemented became known as the “Year of Confusion”, as one could easily imagine given the magnitude and the complexity of the task. In reality, the transition to the Julian calendar was spectacularly good and efficient, because it was a technical marvel in every action and decision, not a chaotic and tumultuous affair as one might have expected with such a radical change.
2.2. Impact on Society and Culture
The transition to the Julian calendar was a significant moment in history that also brought about a number of social and cultural changes. The calendar itself represented a reconciliation between the solar year and the 12 months in a year, and adopted the Egyptian practice of adding a leap day every four years. The establishment of the Julian calendar also marked the beginning of dating years from the supposed date of the birth of Jesus Christ, as well as producing an organized system for intercalation. Hence, the calendar became more than a tool for time management; it became an imprint of the social and political structure of society. In particular, the Julian calendar was used in England and the American colonies, and it continued to represent the authority of the ruling monarchy and parliament until September 1752, when the Gregorian calendar, which introduced a centurial year rule in its leap year system, was adopted. It is perhaps a testament to the power of culture and the human desire for continuity and routine that this transition was met with such resistance and often resultant social confusion. The date that the leap year began was shifted from the 25th of March to the 1st, and 11 days were omitted to readjust the calendar. Although 1st January became the official date for the start of the year in England after the change to the Gregorian calendar, the legal year continued from 25th March until 1752 and it was not until the 20th century that the 1st January was widely celebrated as the first day of the year. The transition period saw the coexistence of the Julian and Gregorian calendar, and this period of adjustment is a clear example of how the uses and representations of a calendar system have the potential to cause social conflict and upset cultural traditions. Furthermore, the introduction of the alternative calendar was often perceived as a political statement and a direct challenge to the Roman Catholic Church, which had been relying on the correctness of the Julian calendar to create fixed dates for religious celebrations such as Easter. The subsequent discredit to the method of intercalation proposed by Caesar, and the fact that the church now favors the Gregorian method, demonstrates a clear change in the religious and cultural authority attributed to the calendar. This implies that the calendar responds not only to but is also a force for social disruption and change. As such, when evaluating the aims, intentions and impacts of any form of social and cultural reform, from the introduction of a new calendar to the reorganization of public holidays, it is necessary to bear in mind the enduring influence of the Julian calendar on our modern society. The legacy of the calendar can be seen in the continuation of the tradition to begin the new year on the 1st January and the retroactive application of BC and AD dating. There have been numerous proposals for a ‘world calendar’ of fixed and equal length months, mirroring the ideological aspirations of unity and globalism seen in reforms to timekeeping in the French Revolution. It is remarkable that we continue to use a system implemented over 2,000 years ago in our everyday lives. Today, the Julian calendar has become a symbol of cultural resilience and individual choice, with Byzantine scholars choosing to follow the old world for their academic work, as well as an emblem of historical and scientific study. The mantle of Julius Caesar’s name and innovations in astronomy has been hoisted by the Gregorian calendar, while the Julian calendar is now a testament to the social and cultural histories of our world.
2.3. Comparison with Other Calendar Systems
The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar and refined by a Greek astronomer, was a solar calendar that closely resembles the modern Gregorian calendar. A solar calendar consists of a year length that reflects the duration of the Earth’s revolution around the Sun. In comparison, a lunar calendar is based on the monthly cycles of the Moon and a lunisolar calendar, such as the Hebrew calendar, integrates both lunar and solar measurements. The Islamic calendar, however, is an example of a purely lunar calendar system. The Julian calendar itself was also based on a regular 365-day year and a leap year of 366 days, which was a considerable step forward from earlier Roman Republican forms of time-keeping. This reflected a key aspect of the proposed reforms that would eventually lead to the modern Gregorian calendar. The focus of most criticisms to the Julian calendar that influenced reform was the discrepancy between the proposed solar year length of 365.25 days and the actual value, which is very close to 365.242190 days. This seemingly small error meant that over a significant period of time, the calendar days and the actual seasons would become increasingly misaligned. Two particular solutions were offered by scientists. Christopher Clavius, a German mathematician and astronomer, proposed that in the period 1500 to 1599, there would be no leap year for 3 out of the 4 centurial years, meaning a year length of 365.2425 days. A more complex proposal named “the tortoise method” was provided by Aloisius Lilius, the primary author of the final Gregorian calendar, where there would be a leap year for every year with excess days when divided by 4, 400, and 1200. This method was eventually chosen in the last Gregorian calendar because the more accurate length of the tropical year given, 365.2425 days, was adopted.
3. Controversies and Reforms of the Julian Calendar
The following section, “Controversies and Reforms of the Julian Calendar,” should then discuss any debates and changes which arose due to the inaccuracy of the Julian Calendar. The first part of the plan 3.1 already details the fact that the calendar is somewhat outdated and it gradually falls out of line with modern astronomical observations, largely due to the fact that the Julian year is that little bit too long. This is a good lead-in to the content in plan 3.1, and as such, I suggest that the writer takes a similar approach to the one they employed in Section 2 and provides some background on the calendar and details the inaccuracies in question. Next, plan 3.2 could discuss any suggested changes that were made in order to rectify the deficiencies in the Julian Calendar, such as the introduction of new systems of measuring time and adjusting the length of months. This plan could eventually lead to a discussion of the Gregorian Calendar, particularly focusing on when and why it was adopted in plan 3.3. By discussing the creation of the calendar in the first instance, the failure of the solar calendar, which was designed to replace the Julian Calendar, is highlighted more effectively. It is also worth considering the fact that the content of the three plans in this section lends itself to further questions that could be explored in the main body of the essay – for example, the writer could investigate why the Gregorian Calendar was not adopted until such a long time after it was introduced and examine the impact that the change in the calendar had on contemporary society. This would make the essay more cohesive, allowing the writer to interlink significant developments in the history of time measurement and maintain a logical thread of argument throughout the essay.
3.1. Inaccuracies and the Need for Reform
The Julian calendar was well suited to the agricultural society of the time. The year was assumed to be 365.25 days long, and this was the year length that had been used in calendars for many centuries. To make the average calendar year 365.25 days long, the Julian calendar was created to have three years of 365 days followed by a year of 366 days. This calendar was well known to be inaccurate. Because of the excess of time being added each year, by the time the Julian calendar was 1,600 years old it was about 10 days out of step with the seasons. This discrepancy had two main problems. The day of the vernal equinox was occurring later and later in the calendar year, and it was also clear that Easter – defined by the church as the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after the day of the vernal equinox – would too often not fall after spring to comply with certain church rules. This had been a problem for some time and so the inaccurate length of the year was changed slightly in A.D. 8, making the Julian year 365 days, 6 hours, and this is the value that we today call the “Julian year length”. However, this simple solution altered the calendar to such an extent that it started to lose widespread usage across Europe. The Julian calendar remains as the world’s major dating system for a millennium, until the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. The modern dating is based on this Gregorian calendar. And it is followed by the world today.
3.2. Proposed Reforms and Alternatives
The first major reform proposal was from the Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder in the first century AD. Pliny proposed that the length of the month be divided into natural cycles of the moon and that the year be divided into twelve months as well. A further reform proposal was that every fourth year should have 366 days, the same as the modern leap year, whereas in the Julian calendar every fourth year has 365 days. It is thought that this proposal was suggested by the astronomer Sosigenes but was implemented by Julius Caesar when introducing his calendar. The adoption of the Julian Calendar and its leap year system did contribute to several socio-economic reforms because it eased the difficulties caused by the different lengths of years and months. The most significant reform proposal was the Gregorian calendar. By the 16th century, the Julian calendar had accrued a discrepancy of about 10 days between its nominally tropical year and the actual length of the year. However, the Roman Catholic Church had been using this cycle to set the date of Easter for over fifteen centuries and it was believed that altering the calendar would be a defiance against the church. However, Pope Gregory XIII introduced a new regulation of the calendar in 1582 which decreed that ten days be dropped from the current year – the day after 4th of October became the 15th of October. More importantly, this new ‘Gregorian’ system included the rule for the Leap Year that would result in a leap year every four years, unless the year is divisible by 100 in which case it’s not a leap year but if that year is divisible by 400 then it is a leap year. Fun Fact: Britain was still using the Julian calendar system so drifted from the Gregorian system by 11 days until the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750. This Act of Parliament rectified the problem by omitting 11 days from September 1752, making the next day the 14th and bringing Britain in line with the Gregorian calendar.
3.3. Transition to the Gregorian Calendar
The transition from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar was necessitated by the eleven-day discrepancy that had accumulated between the calendar year and the solar year. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII authorized the change to the new calendar, which was developed by Luigi Lilio. The Gregorian calendar also introduced the use of leap years to account for the fact that a solar year is actually 365.2425 days rather than 365.25 days as had been originally calculated in the Roman Empire. Most European Catholic countries adopted the Gregorian calendar almost immediately. However, the Protestant countries, including England and its colonies, were reluctant to follow the Catholic Church’s ruling. When the Gregorian calendar was finally adopted in 1752, it required an adjustment of the calendar by 11 days. To do this, the day following September 2 was designated as September 14. This meant that the following tax year in Britain had 354 days. The tax authorities advanced the start of the tax year by one month to April 5, which had been the first day of the tax year under the Julian calendar. This change also required that the calendar year 1751 was to be a short year of only 282 days, running from March 25 to December 31 in order to realign the calendar and the tax year. This adjustment must have created much confusion and potentially a saving for the government. The author of “A Complete History of the County of Middlesex” writes that “the cry of the people at this deficiency was exceeding great, and was the occasion of many stiff letters to the Ministry, which the distresses then in Ireland, the embarrassment of that government.”
4. Legacy and Influence of the Julian Calendar
The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar, introduced the leap year and is still used in some Orthodox churches. It was introduced in 45 BC and reformed in 1582 by Pope Gregory. In the Julian Calendar, there are exactly two possibilities for 3 non-leap years: 12 months of 30 days and then 1 month of 31 days, or 1 month of 28 days. Nowadays, the first day of January can fall on 3 different days of the week. However, in the Gregorian Calendar, currently in use, the first day of January can fall on 7 different days of the week. This calendar was used for over 1500 years but it did not keep synchronization with the seasons. The reason for its introduction was astronomical: it approximated the solar year, being about 11 minutes longer. The Julian Calendar had become 10 days out of date by the time that it was replaced. That’s the reason why in 1582, when Europe switched to the Gregorian calendar but England did not, there was an 11-day difference between the two calendars’ dates. The Gregorian Calendar has been the most commonly used calendar in the world today. In the British Colonies, in 1752, the Gregorian calendar was introduced. The UK was out by 11 days. For example, Wednesday, 2nd September 1752 was followed by Thursday, 14th September 1752. The power and influence of the Roman Empire brought the Julian Calendar to many countries. And this calendar has been the foundation of the development of some calendars in European countries. Jesus Christ, at least the Christian beliefs, altered the course of world history as the man who made the calendar dependent on the date of his birth. Although it was off by 4 years. His calculation was based on the year we call 1 AD/BC 1. However, it is generally accepted that due to a miscalculation on the part of a monk, maybe a few years were actually lost. This would mean that the calendar would start at least 3 years earlier than that. This exacerbated the already existing tension between the Eastern and Western Churches as to when the celebration of Christmas should take place. Gyorgy Hezel, director of the Eotvos Lorand University Institute for Astronomy claims these have been improved in some aspects, “such as the shape and position of the orbit of the Earth, the tilt of the Earth’s axis, the orbital elements of the Moon and the physical ephemerides of planetary motion”.
4.1. Continued Use in Some Orthodox Churches
The wide adoption and enforcement of the Gregorian calendar from the 16th century onwards has led to the Julian calendar falling out of general use. Nowadays, the Julian calendar is still used by the Orthodox churches for all of fixed and movable feasts and periods. Because of the 13-day difference between the calendars, the dates of the celebration of feasts in those churches will differ from the day of the feast in the civil calendar – the day that is accepted in the secular world. One of the main reasons for the continued use of the Julian calendar in those churches is that the church fathers in the Ecumenical council of Nicaea in 325 A.D. fixed the date of the paschal full moon as the 14th day of the Julian lunar month (21 March). According to the decisions of the council and the church canons, a fixed equinox and the paschal full moon which determined the date of Easter were inserted by the Julian calendar. However, these positions of the sun and the moon are required to determine the date of Easter in the Gregorian calendar, which substituted modern name for the Julian calendar; that is the solar dates. This causes the date of Easter in the Julian calendar to differ from the date of Easter in the Gregorian calendar. Also, some proposed reforms to create a common date for Easter did not succeed, which means that the 13-day difference will be there between the Julian and the Gregorian calendar and used to create some additional ways of life in society where the Julian calendar is not accepted. The Orthodox churches’ continued use of the Julian calendar helps enhance dialogue and joint action between believers in traditionally Orthodox countries and the rest of the Christian world since it represents a unique way of life influenced by the religious society, not the modern technological society.
4.2. Cultural Celebrations and Traditions
The Julian calendar’s year was 365.25 days long, with an ordinary year of 365 days divided into 12 months and a leap day being added to the month of February every four years. The leap day was a Roman invention, added after February 23 one year in every four in order to keep the calendar year synchronized with the seasonal year. That was one reason for Roman leap year. Every four years on February 29th, an extra day was added to the month of February, making it a rare 366-day year. This system of adding an extra day every four years is called a leap year, and it gives the average length of the year as 365.2425 days, something that is used to this day. In modern times this percentage is even smaller due to the advancement of the understanding of the solar system and the length of a year has been calculated to be 365.242199 days long. The Julian calendar remained in operation in the Western world for over 1600 years, until being superseded by the modern Gregorian calendar in the 16th century. Gregory’s reform package of 1582 included not only the adoption of his epoch date certified by the papal bull Inter gravissimas, but also a reform of the cycle of leap years and a new to the system of calculating the line of Easter. Easter day was defined in the Julian calendar as the Sunday following the 14th day of the moon and the moon’s age was reckoned from the 14th day. Gregory’s reform changed nothing to the establishment of Easter through the use of the Golden number or Sunday date, methods going back to 3rd and 4th century churches. These were still retained in the new Gregorian calendar introduced in 1582 and still in use today. Gregory’s calendar was distinct from the Julian calendar in two respects: the length of the year was re-established to a value (26 seconds shorter than the solar year) closer to the mean solar year and the value was made constant by dropping 3 leap years every 400 years.
4.3. Astronomical and Scientific Significance
The Julian calendar was a significant astronomical and scientific advancement of its time. Introduced by Julius Caesar and based on the earlier Egyptian calendar, the Julian calendar was the first solar-based calendar to incorporate a leap year after every four years. The calendar closely approached the astronomical year with amazing accuracy considering the technological knowledge of the time. By isolating the leap year to a simple mathematical formula based on divisions of four, the Julian calendar simplified the task of converting dates. Astronomically, the Julian calendar served as the foundation for the modern Gregorian calendar, which serves as the standard international calendar today. However, the scientific and technological features of the Julian calendar were very limited. It is very important where high technology and scientific progress were made only after the fall of the Roman Empire in around the year 500 A.D. and the calendar is now seriously out of step with the seasons. As with much of human history, the Julian calendar represents an intermediate step in the progression to the accuracy and relative simplicity of the modern Gregorian system. The modern Egyptian fellahin, for example, begin the first day of the year whenever they hear by tradition that the Nile is beginning to rise and irrigate the fields. Then the astronomers determine the length of the year as about 365 and 1/4 days. In other words, the conventional year falls significantly short of the actual time taken by the Earth to orbit the sun. This is mainly because the Julian calendar does not take into account the extra 11 minutes and 14 seconds in the solar year that is actually compensated for by the Gregorian calendar’s exception for leap years. The modern calendar, thus, will not require any change until such time in which most people can accept another 3-day omission, however at that stage the 400-year rule will have to be altered as well.

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